Business Plan Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Plan - Term Paper Example With clear targeted clienteles, market analysis is likewise done to have a clearer picture of the organization’s strength, weakness, opportunities and threats (SWOT). The company has a P10 million initial capital and its targets to gain comfortable and reasonable return or profit for sustainability. The business plan is its map to attain success in this business venture. Executive Summary This is a business plan of Ameritech Corporation. This business concept is developed as a start up plan and thus details business plan and its operations. Experts viewed that a business plan is a fundamental necessity in starting a venture. The plan consists of a narrative and research to ensure that company will be able to open and operate systematically with concrete understanding and context of the market. Details below discuss the nature of the company, its products and services; its targeted market; its financial plan and an initial SWOT analysis conducted as first step in scanning the m arket. AmeriTech company will be venturing on marketing information technology. Below is the proposed organizational structure of the company: The CEO will do all the executive functions, lead the planning and implementation and conduct the regular monitoring of the human resources. The SEO does the market analysis. The finance department will be in-charge for the financial disposition, disbursement of salary, payment of purchases and for regular reporting of financial status. It will also be liable for accounting. The marketing department will be composed of human resources, preferably those who have earned a degree in information technology course and has background on business management. They will deal with the customers on regular basis and ensure their satisfaction. The operations department will be responsible for the transportation of purchases from infotech producer and will be accountable for the quality of these products. The support technology engineer on the other hand, will ensure that they will be able to produce online or personal support to customers who suffer some problems in the utilization if the communication gadgets. These are human resources that are trained and capable of fine tuning the equipments and in repairing them in case of defects. Or, in case the gadgets are irreparable, they are those who are knowledgeable to advise customers on the best option to undertake. Company overview AmeriTech Corporation is a company dedicated in selling or marketing information technology facilities. These infotechnologies include computers, laptops, computer accessories, camera, cellular phones with accessories, telephone and fax machines. Softwares related thereto will also be sold. It is located at the heart of San Francisco, California. The company’s vision is to become a business leader in marketing quality infotechnology and other related communication products/services to improve lives, virtually bridge distances between peoples, insti tutions and companies. The company’s mission is to provide infotech consumers with reasonable way of enjoying quality business services, to boost its profit, and to advance the use of technology. Products and Services The company sells information technology such as computers, laptops, cellular phones, telephones, fax machines and their related accessories. It will also sell internet facilities such as

My Reflection Essay Example for Free

My Reflection Essay From the beginning of our life we do not own anything but we have to strive harder in order to survive. The story of Ben Carson, when he is a student he was bullied and was tempted by his classmate to do bad thing but still his mother did not lack of reminding his children to be still. And because of that his mother let his children realized of how hard she is working well in order to survive with their school. Then he tried his best in school, aim high for his dream†¦ see more:san andreas movie summary My reflection on this movie, for I am still a student †¦I will try my very best to do good in school, I will try not to be tempted from wrongdoings ,I will try my best to make my parents proud on me. And do let them get angry, by Ben Carson I was touch by his story that despite of being nothingHe really study hard to fulfill his dream and I have to encourage myself to be same as Ben Carson†¦ I will reflect this to myself for I am still a student, this movie will motivate me from my studying. Give importance and effort to all my subjects so that I can pass. Control myself not to be tempted from wrongdoings. And I will try my best to make my parents proud of methis movie is a really touching story†¦we should have a determination to be a successful person. For me, I will do my best to achieve my goal also to finish my school.

Dolphin Assisted Therapy :: essays research papers fc

Dolphin assisted therapy (DAT) is a highly controversial topic in the medical world. Is it medicine or simply recreation? Whatever you might believe, you cannot deny the fact that dolphins are loving and nurturing mammals with the ability to show compassion. Along with that ability for compassion, some may claim that there is actual science, which proves that interactions with dolphins have helped to treat many patients. Most of the patients in dolphin assisted therapy are children with autism, Down's syndrome, depression, and other neurological and movement disorders. (http://www.cnn.com/HEALTH/9803/28/dolphin.therapy/index.html) The theory behind dolphin assisted therapy is based on two philosophies. One of these is that the unconditional love and support a dolphin has to offer can benefit children and mentally ill patients in many ways. As with most animals, a dolphin seems to have human-like emotions, so a deep trusting bond can develop between patient and mammal. Some proponents of dolphin assisted therapy claim that the compassion a dolphin displays increases the patient’s self-confidence, because the patient is never judged. Increased self-confidence can lead to better social skills and academic improvement. (http://www.ulst.ac.uk/papa/dolphin.html) The second part of the theory involves a more scientific approach. It involves echolocation (echolocation: a high-pitched sound sent out by the dolphin that bounces off an object and returns to the whale. The dolphin interprets the returning echo to determine the object’s shape, direction, distance, and texture). (http://www.zoomdinasaurs.com/subjects/whales/glossary/Echolocation.shtml ) Some say that the dolphins’ use of sonar and echolocation produce changes in the body tissue and cell structure of patients who associate with them. Others believe that sound waves emitted by the dolphins in communication and echolocation stimulate healing. (http://www.idw.org/healing.html) A diminishing of anxiety and depression, enhanced learning in handicapped children, and pain relief are all attributed, by some researchers, to dolphin echolocation (http://www.interspecies.org/dolphin.human/research ). Echolocation is also thought to help increase attention span, develop motor skill s, and develop better co-ordination in children (http://www.ulst.ac.uk/papa/dolphin.html). Although dolphin assisted therapy has many supporters, it also has a large number of critics. They say dolphin assisted therapy is an advertised miracle along with a hefty fee. Dr. Bernard Rimland, director of the Autism Research Institute in San Diego says, â€Å"There is no scientific evidence at all that using dolphins is helpful†¦. It’s a recreational thing.† Michael Westerveld, a pediatirc neuropsychologist at Yale University’s School of Medicine in New Haven, Connecticut, said â€Å"If there is any success, I’d be more likely inclined to attribute it to the general effects of†¦.

Curious Dog in the Night time Essay

Challenges Faced by Christopher Boone Christopher Boone is an autistic child who is the main character of the Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night – Time by Mark Haddon. An individual must overcome difficult challenges in order to gain a sense of maturity. This will be demonstrated by examining Christopher Boone’s ability to learn to be persistent and to learn from his mistakes. He learns to be persistent by finding the killer of Wellington. He learns from his mistakes by taking a train to London to live with his mom. Christopher father and the murder of Wellington make Christopher persistent o investigate and find the killer. After leaving the police station Christopher’s dad constantly told Christopher to stop investigating. His dad says, â€Å"l said leave it, for God’s sake† (Haddon, 21). This quote shows that Christopher Just wants to help find the killer, since he likes dogs and Wellington was a friend and is persistent to find the killer. To escape the promise that his dad made him make, he starts a conversation with someone that knows about Mr. Shears or Wellington, so that the person can talk about it themselves in the conversation. After Mrs. Alexander asks Christopher to alk with her in the park he thinks, â€Å"And I thought that she might tell me something about Wellington or about Mr. Shears without asking her, so that wouldn’t be Shaikh 2 breaking my promise† (Haddon, 54). Clearly, Christopher does not want to obey his father and wants to find the person who killed his friend, which shows him being persistent, since his dad already told him not to investigate about the murder. After his dad tells twice not to investigate on the murder of Wellington, Christopher continuously looks for the killer and investigates even though his father told him not o. For the third time after finding Christopher’s book, his dad says, â€Å"What else did I say, Christopher? Not to go around sticking your fucking nose into other people’s business† (Haddon, 82). This shows that Christopher’s dad had already told Christopher also not to stick his nose into other people’s business, but he also kept sticking his nose into other people’s business, regardless of what is dad said. All of this information shows that Christopher is persistent and wants to find out who killed his friend, even if his dad constantly tells him to stop. Christopher going to London to live with his mother by himself makes him learn from his mistakes. Being autistic is it very hard to handle too many people near you. On the train there were too many people, due to the number of people wanting to go to London. Christopher says, â€Å"There were lots of people on the train, and I didn’t like that, because I don’t like lots of people I don’t know and I hate it even more if I am stuck with lots of people I don’t know, and a train is like a room and you can’t get out when it’s moving† (Haddon, 158). Christopher also relates to a memory where he is in car with two other kids. He says, â€Å"But I started screaming in the car because there were too many people in it (Haddon 158). Later on he also says, â€Å"l tried to get out of the car, but it was still going along and I fell out onto the road† (Haddon 158). This and Polly. To prevent Shaikh 3 himself from throwing himself out of the train and getting hurt he stood very still and didn’t move. Christopher says, â€Å"So I stood very still in the train carriage and didn’t move† (Haddon, 158). This quote shows that he doesn’t want to touch anybody, and cream, or toss himself out of the train and get hurt. Christopher learned from his mistakes because he thought about the injuries and then decided whether he would jump off or not. After Christopher got out of the car while it was still going he said, â€Å"l had to have stitches in my head and they had to shave the hair off and it took 3 months for it to grow back to the way it was before† (Haddon 158). This shows that he knows what is going to happen if he Jumps off the rain because of the number of people on the train. All of this information shows that Christopher learns from his istakes because this time on the train he thought about what will happen if he does jump off the train. An individual must overcome difficult challenges in order to gain a sense of maturity. This will be demonstrated by examining Christopher Boone’s ability to learn to be persistent and learn from his mistakes. He learned to be persistent, because he kept on investigating to find the person that killed Wellington, even though his dad constantly told him not to. He learned from his mistakes, by thinking about the injuries from the last time and then decided whether or not to Jump off. Christopher has gained a sense of maturity by being persistent and learning from his mistakes. Being persistent allowed Christopher to have more insight on things, such as finding his mom’s letters and going to London. Learning from his mistakes allowed Christopher to let others know about his mistakes, which made him confident. Before getting onto the train to London Christopher encounters a policeman and Christopher says, mfou mustn’t touch me† (Haddon, 150), because Christopher knows he will fght and scream like he did with the last cop that touched him.

How and why does Othello’s language change over the course of the Play? Essay

Othello is a classical tragedy in the sense that it has a hero with many virtues who is brought down by a combination of an evil man and his own weakness, jealousy. This rise and fall is echoed in the language given to Othello by Shakespeare which moves from the confidence in front of Brabantio through the violent images and indecision of his undermining by Iago back to some nobility when he realises what he has done. When Othello first appears on stage in Act 1 Scene 2 he has such confidence in his skill with language that he can claim that he is â€Å"rude† in his speech, knowing that no one will possibly believe him. His well-chosen words â€Å"keep up your bright swords, for the dew will rust them† diffuse a potentially dangerous situation and atmosphere. These first few lines create an image of Othello as confident and strong. It also shows that he has a dramatic impact on the other characters and the play itself. The situation arises with Brabantio and his men hold their swords up to Othello and his soldiers, but with those well-chosen words he tells Brabantio and his men to put their swords back in their sheaths. â€Å"for the dew will rust them† is just a bit of sarcasm. He is reminding them that they are merely civilians and policemen and Othello is a military officer and the men behind him are soldiers. It is impossible for Brabantio to win this fight. Earlier when Iago asks Othello if he is secure in his marriage, he replies, â€Å"But that I love the gentle Desdemona I would not unhoused my free condition put into circumscription and confine for the sees’ worth† Here Othello is comparing the value of his freedom and his love for Desdemona to all the treasures of the sea. This is an image typically used by Othello. In scene 3 of the first act Othello is at the Senate, replying to Brabantio’s accusations of casting a spell over Brabantio’s daughter making her fall in love with him. In his speech there is obvious irony and exotic language. Again typical Othello language, â€Å"Rude am in my speech and little bless’d with the soft phrase of peace† that passage is obvious irony as Othello is certainly not rude in his speech he is completely opposite to that. He speaks in dazzling blank line verses that amaze his audience. â€Å"For since these arms of mine had seven years’ pith, till now some nine moons wasted, they have used their dearest action in the tented field, and little of this great world can I speak, More than pertains to feats of boil and battle,† The key test Othello faces is when he has to defend himself in front of the Duke in the council chamber. Brabantio has already accused Othello of witchcraft and the Dukes immediate reaction without knowing it is Othello is one of horror. â€Å"Whoe’e he be that in this foul proceeding hath thus beguiled your daughter of herself†¦ the bloody book of law you shall yourself read in the bitter letter after your own sense, yea, though our proper son stood in your action†. Potentially Othello the soldier is up against the ruling class of Venice but he doesn’t hesitate to challenge Brabantio head on. He is confident enough to suggest Desdemona should be allowed to speak for herself â€Å"Send for the lady to the Sagittary, and let her speak of me before her father†. While they are waiting for Desdemona to arrive Othello launches into a coherently argued forty-line speech. He tells the story of how it was Brabantio himself who brought them together â€Å"Her father loved me, oft invited me, still questioned me the story of my life†. He goes on to describe his distinguished military career. Not only does this get the audience on his side but he is able to use the trick in speeches of describing things in three’s; â€Å"Wherein I spake of most disastrous chances, Of moving accidents by flood and field, Of hair-breadth scapes i’th’imminent deadly breach, Of being taken by the insolent foe, And sold to slavery,†. In this section he conjures up a world dominated by nature and allusions to tribes from classical myths, â€Å"And portance in my travels’ history: wherein of antres vast and desert idle, rough quarries, rocks and hills whose heads touch heaven it was my hint to speak,-such was the process; and of the Cannibals that each other eat, the Anthropophagi and men whose heads do grow beneath their shoulders.†. Even here Othello is able to use words like antres instead of caves and talk of cannibals as Anthropophagi. The rest of the speech is used to show that Desdemona was indeed spellbound but from the story of Othello’s life rather than any magic. He ends triumphantly by rejecting Brabantio’s charge with the two lines â€Å"This only is the witchcraft I have used: Here comes the lady; let her witness it.† After the Turkish fleet was beaten by the storm and defeated by natural rather than military might, Othello has no military duties left to do. Therefore the play now concentrates on the relationships and becomes a much more domestic tragedy. Iago becomes the new enemy not the Turks; he is free to indulge in the evil he has hinted at before. Readers become aware of his evilness as the play unfolds, â€Å"Make the moor thank me, love me, and reward me for making him egregiously an ass and practicing upon his peace and quiet even to madness† Iago as part of this plan gets Cassio drunk because he knows that he can’t hold much drink. Cassio starts a brawl and as a result gets sacked by Othello. Iago then tells him to go and see Desdemona and ask for his job back. Act 111-scene iii is one of the key scenes in the play. At the beginning of this very long scene Othello has complete control over his mind and actions. By the end he is on the edge of being completely insane and the revenge on Desdemona is looming, â€Å"I’ll tear to pieces.† And â€Å"Damn her, lewd Minx†. This is all because of the corruption and evilness of Iago. He has poisoning Othello’s mind. At the beginning, Iago starts to introduce the idea that Desdemona might be unfaithful, as he does throughout the scene Iago exits just after this accusation to leave Othello to contemplate what Iago has just said. Immediately Shakespeare shows through the language that Othello is in two minds about what is going on. His first reaction is to use a bold, manly metaphor from falconry, which is meant to show that he is determined to do what a man must do. â€Å"Thought that her jesses were my dear heartstrings, I’d whistle her off, and let her down the wind.† Yet seven lines later he is using a much more negative image â€Å"I had rather be a toad and live upon the vapour of a dungeon, than keep a corner in the thing I love for others’ uses. Yet, ’tis the plague of great ones.† He rounds of this soliloquy with another phrase showing his confusion when he says â€Å"O, then heaven mocks itself!† before Desdemona enters. At this early stage it is interesting to note that Othello is still able to use irony to put himself down as he did in Act 1 when he says â€Å"Haply, for I am black and have not those soft parts of the convocation that chamberers have,† When Desdemona drops her handkerchief and Emilia finds it and hands it to Iago. He informs the audience of the plot by using a soliloquy. He is going to put it in Cassio’s lodgings to implicate him. Just before Othello comes back in Iago points out the torment that Othello is in, â€Å"The Moor already changes with my poison: Dangerous conceits are in their natures poisons, which at the first are scarce found to distaste, but, with a little act upon the blood, burn like the mines of sulphur.† Othello immediately confirms this when he says to Iago â€Å"thou hast set me on the rack.† Othello’s next soliloquy, while on the surface confident and coherent is in fact a realisation that the military life in which he has been confident in has come to an end. Although the language and structure hark back to his act 1 oratory, he is putting into words the change of scene that has taken place- the enemy has changed from the Turks on the battlefield to Iago in the bedroom. When he is saying farewell to the military life, he not only uses a lot of military images but he also does it in a way that is very formal repeating the word ‘farewell’, â€Å"O, now, for ever farewell the tranquil mind! Farewell content! Farewell the plumped troop and the big wars that make ambition virtue! O, farewell, Farewell the neighing steed and the shrill trump, the spirit-stirring drum, the ear-piercing fife, the royal banner, and all quality, Pride, pomp, and circumstance of glorious war!† Immediately the surface calm of this formal speech is shattered when Othello grabs Iago by the throat and says â€Å"Villain, be sure thou prove my love a whore.† He continues the violent imagery when he says â€Å"Thou hadst been better have been born a dog than answer my wsk’d wrath!† When Iago threatens to go into a sulk at Othello doubting what he is alleging, Othello stops him from leaving but immediately reveals his indecision â€Å"I think my wife be honest, and think she is not; I think that thou are just, and think that thou are not.† This sense of turmoil is further underlined by the aggressive images he uses â€Å"If there be cords or knives, poison or fire or suffocating streams, I’ll not endure’t. – would I were satisfied!† which Iago confirms by saying â€Å"I see, sir, you are eaten up with passion.† Iago then assumes control of the situation and extends the animal sexual imagery by talking about â€Å"Were they as prime as goats, as hot as monkeys, as salt as wolves in pride, and fools as gross as ignorance made drunk.† He introduces the lie of hearing Cassio talk about his love for Desdemona in his sleep. The scene ends with Othello making one last attempt to speak formally with classical allusions â€Å"like to the Pontic Sea, Whose icy current and compulsive course ne’er feels retiring ebb, but keeps due on to the Propontic and Hellespont.† Just before the end Iago and Othello kneel down together and Iago solemnly swears to provide evidence of Desdemona’s wrong doing to Othello. His real state of mind though is shown with the last four lines â€Å"Damn her, lewd minx! O, damn her! Damn her! Come, go with me apart; I will withdraw, to furnish me with some swift means of death for the fair devil. Now art thou lieutenant.† Even in describing Desdemona as a ‘Fair Devil’ Othello uses an oxymoron to show his confusion. Act 4 opens with Othello and Iago discussing the proof that has been obtained so far. It quickly becomes apparent that Othello’s mental state has rapidly deteriorated. When Iago starts to introduce the idea that Cassio has been sleeping with Desdemona with the key word ‘Lie’, the conversation breaks down in confusion over whether Cassio has been ‘lying’ with Desdemona or if Shakespeare is really drawing attention to the fact that Iago is telling a ‘Lie’. Othello’s response is one of total confusion; he abandons the well-formed blank verse he has spoken in for almost incoherent prose. Before he falls into a trance he is reduced to a series of short exclamations, â€Å"Pish! Noses, ears, and lips. Is’t possible? – confess? – Hand-kerchief? – O devil!† Cassio briefly re-enters and is told by Iago to come back after a short while. When Othello recovers from his fit Iago tells him to hide himself and listen to what Cassio has to say. Although Othello is at one level quite aggressive with Iago saying â€Å"Dost thou mock me?† and â€Å"Did he confess it?† It is Iago who is in charge of the situation and Othello is reduced to one or two line interruptions. Just before Cassio comes back in Iago makes it clear how he will use the situation to deceive Othello: â€Å"As he shall smile, Othello shall go mad; and his unbookish jealousy must construe poor Cassio’s smiles, gestures, and light behaviours, quite in the wrong.† Iago leads Cassio on just out of Othello’s earshot by clearly getting Cassio to talk about Bianca while Othello thinks he is talking about Desdemona. The deception is completed by Bianca herself comes in and displays the handkerchief that Iago had planted in Cassio’s room. When Cassio and Bianca have gone, Othello comes back and in one speech shows that he can still hardly believe what has happened, â€Å"Ay, let her rot, and perish, and be damned tonight; for she shall not live. No, my heart is turned to stone: I strike it, and it hurts my hand. O, the world hath not a sweeter creature: she might lie by an emperor’s side and command him tasks.† On one level he is convinced of her unfaithfulness but on another he cannot completely let go of the image of the sweet and beautiful women he has married. Gradually Othello overcomes his squeamishness and as he becomes more determined so his language becomes more violent. At one point he says â€Å"I will chop her into messes – cuckold me!† and in his next utterance he becomes very lucid because he knows exactly what might stop him doing what he thinks should be done, â€Å"Get me some poison, Iago – this night. I’ll not expostulate with her, lest her body and beauty un-provide my mind again – this night, Iago.† When Lodovico and Desdemona come in with a letter re-calling Othello and appointing Cassio in his place as governor of Cypress, Othello’s speech and behaviour once again break down. He is reduced again to a series of exclamations: â€Å"Fire and brimstone †¦ Indeed†¦ Devil!† Culminating in him striking his wife. Lodovico is shocked by what he has seen ands heard, and after Othello has dismissed Desdemona with a series of jerky exclamations and departed himself with the outburst â€Å"Goats and Monkeys!† Lodovico expresses concern when he says â€Å"Is this the noble Moor whom our full senate call all in all sufficient? Is this the nature whom passion could not shake?† The next scene opens with Othello questioning Emilia about Desdemona and Cassio. Despite the fact that Emilia protests that there is nothing untoward between them, Iago has poisoned his mind and he dismisses Emilia’s evidence with the lines â€Å"She says enough; yet she’s a simple bawd that cannot say as much. This is a subtle whore, a closet lock and key of villainous secrets; and yet she’ll kneel and pray; I have seen her do’t.† Othello now can only conceive his wife as a â€Å"Whore†. When he is left alone with Desdemona she immediately senses something is wrong â€Å"I understand a fury in your words, but not the words themselves.† The imagery Othello uses in trying to get Desdemona to confess is that of heaven and hell: – â€Å"the devils themselves†¦double damned†¦thou art false as hell.† This imagery borrowed from Iago shows just what an extent Othello’s mind has been taken over. Othello then embarks on a speech, in which he imagines all the awful punishments he might have to endure like the prophet Job. He realises that although he could cope with all that he cannot cope with the loss of Desdemona â€Å"But there, where I have garnered up my heart, where either I must live or bear no life, the foundation from the which my current runs, or else dries up- to be discarded thence!† The consequences of this bring about the imagery of toads when he had previously used in act 3-scene iii. His most striking picture of how his view of Desdemona has changed comes when he asks Desdemona to look at him, he says â€Å"Patience, thou young and rose-lipped cherubin, ay, there, look grim as hell!† Othello uses an image worthy of Iago when he replies to Desdemona â€Å"as summer flies are in the shambles, that quicken even when blowing†. Yet even now he is aware of the power of Desdemona and dismisses the image with the confused exclamation â€Å"O thou weed, who art so lovely and fair and smell so sweet that the senses ache at thee, would thou hadst ne’er been born!† His next speech re-introduces the cosmic imagery from earlier in the play when he describes his shame at the thought of what Desdemona has done â€Å"Heaven stops the nose at it, and the moon winks; the bawdy wink, that kisses all it meets, is hushed within the hollow mine of earth, and will not hear it.† However before he leaves, he virtually accuses Desdemona of being a common prostitute by describing her twice as a â€Å"strumpet† and once as â€Å"that cunning whore of Venice†. He ends his part in the scene by using again an image of heaven and hell borrowed from Iago when he says â€Å"You, mistress that have the office opposite to Saint Peter and keep the gate of hell!† The powerfulness of the images in these lines shows the extent of Othello’s love for Desdemona and his pain at what he imagines has happened. The image of the fountain shows that he regards Desdemona as the source of his love. The final scene opens with Othello going into Desdemona’s bedroom carrying a candle. His opening words â€Å"It is the cause; it is the cause, my soul. Let me not name it to you, you chaste stars! It is the cause.† are almost a means of ‘psyching’ himself up to do the deed. Othello repeatedly uses the word â€Å"cause† in his opening quote. It could mean one of three things: Desdemona’s infidelity may be the reason which propels his actions; he is also thinking that his actions are in a just cause; or he could be using it in a legal sense as the accusation brought against Desdemona in a court. Either way Othello invents himself as the personification of justice, partly because he cannot bear to face up directly to what he thinks Desdemona has done. When he talks to her sleeping figure he imagines her already as a figure on a tomb and starts on an extended metaphor taken probably from the candle he is holding which has at least shown he has regained some of his composure. Although he is determined to gain revenge he is also acutely aware of the finality of what he is about to do â€Å"yet she must die, else she’ll betray more men. Put out the light, and then put out the light †¦ but once put out thy light, thou cunning’st pattern of excelling nature, I know not where is that Promethean heat that can thy light relume.† His use of classical allusions shows that he has recaptured the fluency of earlier scenes but he still cannot bear to confront Desdemona directly. He compares her to a rose on a tree and when he kisses her he brings up again his image of himself as Justice. The confused state of mind is perhaps shown in his words â€Å"I will kill thee and love thee after† When Desdemona wakes up, Othello, while still determined, is gentle with her. However once she starts protesting her innocence his anger returns and he starts calling her a â€Å"strumpet† and not even allowing her to say a last prayer. When Emilia comes in and draws back the curtains as Desdemona dies, she is appalled and summons Iago among others to witness what has happened. As Emilia starts to reveal what has happened Iago becomes more and more agitated and Othello begins to realise that he has been deceived. Iago stabs Emilia and she dies praising her mistress Desdemona â€Å"Moor, she was chaste; she loved thee, cruel Moor†. This is almost a parallel of Desdemona’s last words protesting her continuing love for Othello. The truth is now out and Othello begins the process of trying to present himself in the best possible light. He begins by recalling his strong point- his role as a soldier â€Å"Behold I have a weapon: A better never did itself a sustain upon a soldier’s thigh.† Perhaps unconsciously Othello is also recalling his role as the agent of justice in his use of the image of the sword. As he regains his eloquence he begins to picture both himself and Desdemona as victims of fate. Probably he is trying to avoid admitting that they are both victims of his own stupidity. Yet in the end the growing realisation of what has happened forces him to have to come to terms with two things. Firstly, he recalls his imagery of heaven and hell and uses it to contrast the innocent Desdemona with his own guilt â€Å"when we shall meet at compt, this look of thine will hurl my soul from heaven, and fiends will snatch at it. Cold, cold, my girl! Even like thy chastity.† This leads him on to an eloquent outburst against himself as he realises his role in the tragedy â€Å"O cursà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½d, cursed slave! Whip me ye devils from the possession of this heavenly sight!† As the surviving characters come on stage Othello turns his language of delivery against Iago himself when he says to Cassio â€Å"will you, I pray, demand that demi-devil why he hath thus ensnared my soul and body?† Iago refuses to say anything and Othello embarks on one final, glorious speech full of poetry and memorable images. He pictures himself as someone who has suffered because of his love for Desdemona â€Å"then must you speak of one that loved not wisely but too well† in explaining his murder of Desdemona he likens himself to quotes â€Å"the base Indian† who â€Å"threw a pearl away† He continues his startling use of imagery by picturing himself as grieving for Desdemona in a way that will heal the situation â€Å"of one whose subdued eyes, albeit unused to the melting mood, drop tears as fast as the Arabian trees their medicinable gum.† Finally he recalls his role as a Christian hero slaying the wicked Turk and his final words combine the themes of death and his love for Desdemona â€Å"I kissed thee ere I killed thee: no way but this, killing myself, to die upon a kiss.† In Othello more than any other tragedy Shakespeare uses the hero’s language to parallel his rise and fall. At the beginning when accused of witchcraft by Brabantio, Othello is completely in control of the situation and his language reflects it. As Iago begins to poison his mind and the scene shifts from the battlefield to the bedroom his language breaks down and he is reduced to a series of exclamations of abuse. It is only at the very end when he knows what has to be done that he becomes calm again and his language regains all its beauty and poetry.

A Historical Look at Punishment

A Historical Look at Punishment Free Online Research Papers Imagine for a moment being Robert-Francois Damiens, who in 1757 was executed for the attempted murder of King Louis XV. Mostly likely one would expect to be put to death by a quick beheading through the use of a gelatin or by the swing of an executioner’s sword. However, this was not the case. His sentencing required flesh from his body to be torn off by flamed pincers, having those wounds filled with molten sulfur, and to be quartered by four horses which involved the horses pulling in opposite directions until the body’s limbs were ripped off. In today’s American society one would find this sentencing to be under the Cruel and Unusual Punishment Act which does not allow for such a horrific torture to take place. We would, on the other hand, expect the punishment to be severe for such an elevated offense, but the punishment for an attempted murder of an official would more likely involve life in prison, with a possible chance of parole or less. This quick description of punishment in different eras shows a little bit of where we were with the treatment of criminals in the past, and where we are today. To fully understand how we have made such accomplishments and changes in controlling deviancy we must look to the very earliest of civilizations and through time to realize why the changes were made and what they were. The Ancient Times were loaded with diverse punishment for criminals, and ways of deterring criminal acts to take place. Greece, for instance, heavily practiced execution, banishment, and exile. Execution consisted of crucifixion, stoning to death, and throwing from high cliffs. Many of the executed were left in public view while their body’s rotted away to deter others from committing the same crime. Israel followed the codes of the Bible, punishing criminals through exposure to wild animals, lashings, cursing, crucifixion, and casting down. The punishment was to revenge what laws of the Bible they broke and to be equal to what they have done. Early Rome had The Twelve Tables, which were the earliest written laws and punishment were burning to equal the offense of arson, throwing from a cliff for perjury, clubbing to death for mocking a fellow citizen, hanging for stealing crops or other property, and a few other vicious punishments for higher offenses. As society entered into the Middle Ages physical punishment followed in a similar fashion to ancient times through European countries and American colonies. The punishment involved five degrees of severity and were all held out in a public arena. The first degree was flogging and whipping, which was used mainly for control over prisoners. Used heavily throughout American colonies until the 20th century, the whipping allowed officials to forcefully control subjects and to deter others by the fear of harsh rules that follow imprisonment. The second level consisted of the burning of skin and flesh. As discussed in the case of Damiens, burning of the flesh was carried out as a deterrent and as a means of revenge. A third degree offense would have involved mutilation or an act that would have left the body permanently disfigured. These punishments were dealt to offenders as a deterrent to others and were designed to match the offense accordingly. For example, a thief would have the ir hands cut off, a liar would have their tongue ripped out, and a sexual offender would have their genitals removed. A fourth degree offense ended in instant death. Reserved mainly for royalty and nobles, the death was quick and virtually painless. Decapitation in this manner was seen as an honorable death through the Middle Ages. Finally, the fifth and last level of severity led to a very torturous, painful, and agenizing death. This is exactly what Damiens would have been sentenced to for his murder attempt on the king. It consisted of all the other punishment levels and a multitude of acts. Torture was used in the sentencing to gain confession of the criminal’s wrong doing and in efforts to free their souls from the evils which they committed. Also some societies practiced exile and transportation. The punishment sent criminals to foreign land or to newly discovered land as a way to remove them from society. Greek offenders were forced to Rome, who also practiced exiling any criminals to other countries. Amazingly, America was one of the newly discovered lands that Europe used as a transportation and exile area. The big change in punishment came about in the 16th and 17th centuries throughout Europe and began to spread elsewhere. What began as workhouses for social deviants and minor criminals would eventually span out to become long term, up to two years, holding cells for all criminals and even those who actually haven’t broke any written laws, such as mentally ill. The motivation behind this switch was a change in attitude towards punishment and its physicality. Thought began to emerge of taking away personal freedom and to make the person’s soul and spirit suffer more harshly then the body. Another main factor that led to more modern day prison versions was the passing of laws to keep non-criminals out of prison. This meant that there would no longer be holdings of mentally ill, children, women, and a very large number of debtors who were originally placed together. Reformers such as William Penn, John Howard, and Jeremy Bentham began studying prison systems to better the development and the purpose of prisons as institutions of rehabilitation. Penn shifted punishment by setting only one capitol punishment, being premeditated murder, and abolishing all former English capitol punishments. This became known as the â€Å"Great Act† of 1682. Howard and Bentham stayed busy by writing books on reformation and rehabilitation of prisoners, and by developing new versions of prison architecture. Along with other reformers, these men were able to help swing society’s view of punishment and set up new deviance control methods that were more centered on criminals and teaching them ways to correct their criminal ways. Obviously the harsh punishment in Ancient Times and through the Middle Ages wasn’t the most efficient manner to deter criminal acts because crime rates did not drop nor did criminals stop committing the same crimes. One of the problems revolved around the fact that many being punished were not offenders of serious crimes. Many were forced to thievery because of their social status and it was the only way for survival, while others were punished because they were in debt to a noble. The shift towards prison sentences established a well defined written law and also set punishment levels more accordingly to their offenses. Today’s prison, parole, and probation system allows use to hold prisoners in appropriate places. Our society has minimum to high security prison that have the ability to separate the serious and violent offenders from those who committed lesser acts. This keeps morale high for those who now the will be returned to society after a short sentence bec ause they understand that the situation could be worse. Probation and parole allows the offender to slowly adjust to normal society through certain regulations, routine drug checks, and probation or parole meetings to affirm success or to catch another criminal act by the offender. This operates as a deterrent and as a guide to the offender, while at the same time creates a system of checks and balances that officials can follow to assure they are releasing a reformed person who is no longer a deviant of society. However punishment is dealt, we will always have deviants in society, and it would be impossible to eliminate all criminal acts. I think we have come a long way in controlling deviancy and where we are at today has led to crime rate drops and will only continue to create new techniques in criminal deterrence, reformation and rehabilitation, and better programs to reintroduce criminals into society. Research Papers on A Historical Look at PunishmentCapital PunishmentComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite ReligionThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationThe Masque of the Red Death Room meaningsEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseThe Fifth HorsemanBringing Democracy to Africa19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided Era

Cómo recuperar la ciudadanía americana

Cà ³mo recuperar la ciudadanà ­a americana Es posible que una persona que en el pasado fue ciudadano de los Estados Unidos y perdià ³ esa condicià ³n puede recuperar la ciudadanà ­a, siempre y cuando se cumplan los requisitos que pide la ley. Es cierto que en la actualidad, y con las leyes que hoy aplican, es muy difà ­cil que un ciudadano de los Estados Unidos pierda su nacionalidad, excepto en los casos de hechos gravà ­simos en contra del paà ­s o cuando una persona asà ­ se desea expresamente. Sin embargo, hasta hace poco, era  un hecho no infrecuente. En este artà ­culo se informa quià ©nes perdà ­an segà ºn las leyes antiguas y pierden segà ºn las actuales la ciudadanà ­a de forma involuntaria y quià ©nes pueden recuperarla, quà © requisitos deben cumplir y quà © trmites deben seguir. Casos en los que antes se poda perder la nacionalidad de EEUU involuntariamente Hace aà ±os, las leyes que regulaban la nacionalidad americana eran distintas de las actuales y,  bajo la legislacià ³n que aplicaba en el pasado, un buen nà ºmero de ciudadanos perdieron la ciudadanà ­a sin que esa fuese su voluntad, simplemente porque asà ­ era la ley. Por ejemplo, y en primer lugar, las personas nacidas fuera de Estados Unidos entre 1934 y 1978 y que adquirà ­an la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense porque uno de sus padres tenà ­a dicha nacionalidad, podà ­an perderla si no se mudaban a Estados Unidos y tenà ­an presencia fà ­sica en este paà ­s por un nà ºmero de aà ±os. Es lo que se conocà ­a como el requisito de retencià ³n.   Asimismo, en segundo lugar, en el pasado y antes de que Estados Unidos reconociese la doble nacionalidad  se castigaba con la pà ©rdida de la ciudadanà ­a a los estadounidenses que adquirà ­an otra nacionalidad. Incluso aà ºn despuà ©s de admitirla, surgà ­an problemas para los americanos que vivà ­an en un paà ­s del que tambià ©n eran nacionales que prohibà ­a la doble nacionalidad y exigà ­a, en algà ºn momento, la renuncia al pasaporte americano para poder conservar el del paà ­s en el que vivà ­an. Incluso algunos paà ­ses exigà ­an prestar unos juramentos de lealtad, que las oficinas consulares americanas consideraban que eran una renuncia a la ciudadanà ­a de los Estados Unidos. En tercer lugar, otro caso en los que la ley preveà ­a la pà ©rdida de nacionalidad se daba cuando con anterioridad a septiembre de 1922 un estadounidense que residà ­a fuera de EE.UU se casaban con un extranjero. En cuarto lugar, otro ejemplo de pà ©rdida de nacionalidad involuntaria era el de las personas que adquirà ­an la nacionalidad mediante naturalizacià ³n y la perdà ­an si no continuaban residiendo dentro de los Estados Unidos. Sin embargo, tener en cuenta que esto ya no sucede ahora. Por à ºltimo, y en quinto lugar, un caso distinto pero relacionado con este tema es el hecho de que con anterioridad a 1934 los nià ±os nacidos en otro paà ­s sà ³lo podà ­an adquirir la ciudadanà ­a americana por parte paterna. Es decir, los nià ±os nacidos fuera de Estados Unidos que eran hijos de mujer estadounidense y padre extranjero no recibà ­an la ciudadanà ­a. Se puede recuperar la nacionalidad estadounidense? En primer lugar destacar que cuando la ciudadanà ­a se pierde de un modo voluntario es para siempre. No hay vuelta atrs, asà ­ que antes de dar el paso es conveniente pensarlo mucho e incluso consultarlo con un abogado de inmigracià ³n. Los casos ms comunes son los de renuncia para no pagar impuestos. En lo que respecta a los casos de pà ©rdida involuntaria, la respuesta depende del caso. En algunos casos no es posible recuperar la ciudadanà ­a de los Estados Unidos, mientras que en otros sà ­. Y es que la Ley de Correcciones Tà ©cnicas de Inmigracià ³n y Naturalizacià ³n que se aprobà ³ en 1994 y que se conoce por sus siglas en inglà ©s de INTCA abrià ³ el camino a posibles recuperaciones en casos especà ­ficos. Por ejemplo, por aplicacià ³n de esta ley se reconoce la ciudadanà ­a americana a las personas nacidas fuera de los Estados Unidos con anterioridad al 24 de mayo de 1934 que tenà ­an un   padre extranjero pero madre ciudadana cuando à ©sta cumplà ­a el requisito de aà ±os vividos en EU antes del nacimiento del hijo o hija, al que ahora por aplicacià ³n de INTCA se le reconoce su condicià ³n de estadounidense. Adems, se establece un camino para la recuperacià ³n de la nacionalidad para todas aquellas personas nacidas fuera de EU entre 1934 y 1978 y que la habà ­an adquirido al nacer porque uno de sus padres eran estadounidenses pero ms tarde la perdieron por no cumplir el requisito para retenerla de presencia fà ­sica en los Estados Unidos. La forma a seguir, por aplicacià ³n de la seccià ³n 324 (d) de la Ley de Inmigracià ³n y Ciudadanà ­a (INA) es hablar con el consulado o embajada de los Estados Unidos ms cercano al lugar de residencia y solicitar prestar el juramento de lealtad al paà ­s. Lo que se conoce en inglà ©s como el oath of allegiance. Y con esto es suficiente para recuperar la ciudadanà ­a. A mayores, aunque no es necesario sà ­ que es conveniente solicitar un Certificado de Ciudadanà ­a (formulario N-600) para poder probarla y tambià ©n para pedir algunos de los posibles beneficios como, por ejemplo, el pasaporte. Asimismo, desde 2002 podrà ­an recuperar la nacionalidad estadounidense las personas que la perdieron con anterioridad al 22 de septiembre de 1922 por haberse casado con un extranjero y residir fuera de los Estados Unidos. Y tambià ©n los que con posterioridad a dicha fecha la perdieron por contraer matrimonio con un extranjero considerado como inelegible para la ciudadanà ­a.   En estos dos à ºltimos casos del prrafo anterior,   la recuperacià ³n se hace mediante un trmite de naturalizacià ³n. Hay que cumplir con requisitos adicionales y en algunos casos incluso no es necesario. Por sus particularidades, las personas en estos casos de pà ©rdida de nacionalidad por cuestià ³n de matrimonio deberà ­an asesorarse con un abogado sobre el procedimiento a seguir. En los dems casos en los que se ha dejado de ser americano involuntariamente se pueden escribir una carta muy detallada con especificaciones de su caso y pidiendo recuperar la ciudadanà ­a. Incluir entre otros datos el nombre completo, la fecha y lugar de nacimiento, telà ©fonos de contacto, las razones por las que se pierde la ciudadanà ­a y tambià ©n cul era la intencià ³n hacia dicha ciudadanà ­a en el momento en que se produce la pà ©rdida. Enviar la informacià ³n a: U.S. Department of StateOffice of Leal Affairs (CA/OCS/L)600 19th  Street, N.W.- 10th  Floor600 19th Street, NWWashington, D.C. 20431 Si se utiliza servicio de correo exprà ©s. Por el contrario, si se utiliza correo ordinario la direccià ³n es la siguiente: U. S. Department of StateDirectorOffice of Legal Affairs (CA/OCS/L)Overseas Citizens ServicesU.S. Department of StateSA-17, 10th FloorWashington, D.C. 20522-1707 Tambià ©n se puede contactar por correo electrà ³nico, telà ©fono o fax: Tel: 202-736-9110Fax: 202-736-9111Email:  ASKPRIstate.gov Corresponde al gobierno decidir si concede o no la peticià ³n para que una persona recupere la ciudadanà ­a y lo har teniendo en cuenta los mà ©ritos particulares de cada caso. Es conveniente saber que el proceso puede demorarse varios meses antes de tener una respuesta. Lo habitual es una demora entre 4 y 6 meses. Por à ºltimo, si la peticià ³n es concedida la persona tendr que jurar lealtad a los Estados Unidos  y sà ³lo a partir de entonces volver a gozar de los derechos de ser americano como, por ejemplo, votar en las elecciones, ser elegido representante, viajar con pasaporte de ese paà ­s, tener acceso a ayudas sociales reservadas para ciudadanos y pedir los papeles para familiares. Aclaraciones, derechos y obligaciones a tener en cuenta Por lo tanto, los hijos que se tuvieron en el tiempo en el que una persona perdià ³ la ciudadanà ­a y antes de recuperarla no obtienen automticamente ningà ºn beneficio, en otras palabras, no se convierten ni en ciudadanos ni residentes permanentes. Sin embargo, si se cumplen los requisitos, la persona que fue ciudadana, perdià ³ la ciudadanà ­a y posteriormente la recuperà ³, podrà ­a iniciar los trmites para pedir la green card para esos hijos y otros familiares  en el momento en que recupera la ciudadanà ­a.   Asimismo, tener en todo momento presente que la ciudadanà ­a americana brinda derechos, lo cierto es que tambià ©n lleva aparejada obligaciones, incluso para las personas que residen habitualmente o siempre fuera de los Estados Unidos. Respecto a esos à ºltimos, siguen obligados  pago de impuestos  y, en el caso de varones, es aconsejable familiarizarse con el Servicio Selectivo, ya que es necesario registrarse. Este artà ­culo es meramente informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

Definition of Stack in Programming

Definition of Stack in Programming A stack is an array or list structure of function calls and parameters used in modern computer programming and CPU architecture. Similar to a stack of plates at a buffet restaurant or cafeteria, elements in a stack are added or removed from the top of the stack, in a â€Å"last in first, first out† or LIFO order. The process of adding data to a stack is referred to as a â€Å"push,† while retrieving data from a stack is called a â€Å"pop.† This occurs at the top of the stack. A stack pointer indicates the extent of the stack, adjusting as elements are pushed or popped to a stack. When a function is called, the  address  of the next instruction is pushed onto the stack. When the function exits, the address is popped off the stack and execution continues at that address. Actions on the Stack There are other actions that can be performed on a stack depending on the programming environment. Peek: Allows the inspection of the topmost element on a stack without actually removing the element.Swap: Also referred to as â€Å"exchange,† the positions of the two top elements of the stack are swapped, the first element becoming the second and the second becoming the top.Duplicate: The topmost element is popped from the stack and then pushed back onto the stack twice, creating a duplicate of the original element.Rotate: Also referred to as â€Å"roll,† specifies the number of elements in a stack which are rotated in their order. For example, rotating the top four elements of a stack would move the topmost element into the fourth position while the next three elements move up one position. The stack is also known as Last In First Out (LIFO). Examples: In C and C, variables declared locally (or auto) are stored on the stack.

English Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 19

English - Essay Example The people, who watch over her in this condition, are Jason Posner, who solely resorts his faith in being a doctor. Another person is, Susie Monahan, who is a nurse with a humanitarian approach, she is the only one in the entire hospital who really cares for Vivians deplorable state. Dr. Kelekian is the head doctor in the hospital, who is just interested in the results; it does not matter to him, what they are. The doctors counsel for an untried treatment of painful chemotherapy, and she agrees to it. Partially it is her own choice, but also her own personal states of affairs force her to act so, she comes to a decision to endure the agony of the treatment by herself. However, as her treatment develops, she desires that she really had some more actually gentle human interface from the people who treat her as a human being and not just an object of research trial. The tone of this theatre is grim, and quite unlike to the name, ‘Wit’ is not explicit here; but the play has many intelligent moment of humor in it. The story revolves around a question of life and death, but has a much more intricate humanitarian tone in it. The excellent background music of piano helps to understand the underlying tone of the story more deeply. Emma Thompson’s outstanding performance and Mike Nichols’ excellent direction made it more appealing to the spectators. This theatrical production Stage Beauty (2004), is based on 1660s Londons theatres production of Londons theatres. The plot turns around the established system of gender positions in the theatre production houses. It intends to modify these gender issues for everyones benefit. Ned Kynaston is a homosexual, cross-dressing artist who has been portraying on-stage female characters in several plays for many years, mainly the role of Desdemona in Othello. He also shares a close bonding with a certain male co-actor. Gradually, the long and

Primary and Secondary Education in Wales and England Essay

Primary and Secondary Education in Wales and England - Essay Example In fact, British started the first educational institutions of most of the countries with the network of their missionaries, which has helped in the spread of English as a world language. However, the scope of this essay is restricted to the "social, economic and political factors that have influenced the changes to Primary and Secondary Education in Wales and England since 1944". 1944 was a landmark year in the history of the education system in Wales and England. The education act of 1944(also known as Butler Act, named after Rab Butler who formulated the act) completely changed the existing scenario of the Primary and the Secondary education system. It placed the education system under Ministry of Education, which hitherto was nonexistent and increased the role of the minister to include promotion of education in England and Wales. The act made Education free but compulsory. It raised the school leaving age to 15; suggested free milk, transport, and regular medical check ups for all the students. The entire Voluntary Schools most of which were owned by the churches were converted to, either aided, or 'controlled'. To advice the minister on the matters connected with education two Central Advisory Councils for Education, one for England and one for Wales were established. Although it maintained that Religious Education was a statutory requirement, it gave t he parents a free hand to decide their children's participation in it. It made the appointment of a Chief Education Officer a mandatory requirement for every LEA and divided the responsibility of management of education between the central government, the LEAs and Institution governing bodies. The government did not get involved in the process of making the curriculum which was left to the institution governing bodies mainly head teacher. The 1994 education act was based on the reports of Hadow (1926), Spens (1938), and Norwood (1943) all of which were suggestive of grouping of children based on their intelligence through exams (Roy Lowe (ed), 2000). Hence, it introduced the 'Tripartite System' of having Grammar Schools, Secondary Modern Schools, and the Secondary Technical Schools. Grammar school was for the most intelligent of the student lot, the Secondary Modern Schools for the ordinary majority and Secondary Technical Schools were for those with technical aptitude. The Labour party, which came into power with a huge majority after the Second World War, implemented most of the provisions of the 1944 Education Act. Several sections of the act were deleted one by one in the later years through legislation and it was completely repealed by 1996 Education Act. Even though Britain was occupied with mammoth restoration efforts after the Second World War, the government in power under the leadership of Clement Attlee was obsessed with the creation of so called 'welfare State'. Ellen Wilkinson the first Minister of Education post-war aggressively pursued her ambition of implementation of provisions of 1944 education act without much success. Some of the reports which were made after the 1944 education act recommended further changes in the education system. Percy report (1945) recommended inclusion of technical education in universities and Barlow Report (1946) recommended increase in number of seats for science students in universities. The first Clarke report (1947) School and life

The Effect of Rural Population Density on Socio-economic Dissertation

The Effect of Rural Population Density on Socio-economic Characteristics of Rural Communities - Dissertation Example From the research it can be comprehended that rural population or settlement density is a very important factor or variable in identifying, delineating, analysing and categorising the rural communities. Modern day rural communities are typically formed out of a symbiosis between a central urban centre and a rural matrix within which it is embedded, in terms of the labour market, service provided, social interaction and other activities. The concept of the rural population and the nature of these settlement densities are essential variables as one tries to comprehend the important factor in understanding the socio-economic, the population density and the settlement matrix of the sparsely populated rural areas, where the thin and decreasing population densities presents both theoretical and practical problems for those involved in rural planning. Rural population density has a strong influence over the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the various non-urban communities, especially in the developed world, and forms to be a fundamental variable within the realms of planning and public policy framing. Thus, we find that study of rural population density is an essential subject in order to develop these spresely-populated areas better. However, a closer look at this subject of rural population shows us that not much work has been done in this line owing to the complex nature of the population density. It is not easy to distinguish between cause and effect, while explaining the various planes of human density, and the type and depth of their relationships with different social aspects. The complex nature of population density also implicates the involvement of the socio-economic, environmental, and historical factors that help to create a specific density spectrum and kind, like, linear, clustered, or randomly distributed, in respect to any type of rural community (Argent, Smailes, & Grif?n, 2005). The perceived density or the qualitative dimensions of population density are yet to be explored in details. only a few researchers have worked in this regards, as for example, Irving and Davidson (1973) defined social density (interpersonal relationships between members of a rural community), and Tuan (1977) in his papers emphasized that the feelings of crowding or loneliness were created owing to an individual’

Does the threat of prison serve as a deterrent Discuss with reference Essay

Does the threat of prison serve as a deterrent Discuss with reference to the work of at least two academic theorists - Essay Example Across the societies and in all nations, a prison system has been set and mandated with primary responsibility and authority of punishing these criminal offenders who have been found guilty by court. To deter is to use punishment as way of averting criminal acts. A prison is a setting where criminal offenders are contained legally as way of punishment for the crimes they have committed (Perrier and Pink, 2003:58). The question that, therefore, rises is if prisons actually serve to deter crime from happening. This essay will discuss the extent and ways in which prisons function in their attempt to reduce and deter crime and demonstrate if actually this objective is achieved. This will be based and compared to the theoretical perspectives of prison and role in crime deterrence. It is of great concern to anyone who has interest in crime prevention to critically analyse the role of prison system in curbing crime through preventing a reoccurrence and initiation of a new one. There has been a massive transformation in the recent time in the prison departments with different people expressing divergent opinions concerning the main role of a prison. Some people would argue that the prison should be a rehabilitation centre with structures and facilities that are suppose to empower the offenders and show them a new perspective in life. Other people from a different school of thought would say that availing positive and empowerment tools to offenders would be reinforcing criminal acts and, therefore, no one would learn from the mistakes. Punishment is the best way to unlearn behaviour rather that exposing a criminal to positive and enabling conditions. While it appears to be a motivation and reinforcement of a criminal behaviour, a holistic rehabilitative measure have been put in most prisons to make sure that prisoners come out of their dens afresh with clearly set goals and ambition so as to make a change in the society. This has

Is Chinese currency (Reminbi) Undervalued Essay

Is Chinese currency (Reminbi) Undervalued - Essay Example emand to appreciate its currency since this is primarily viewed as one of the main reasons of loss of manufacturing jobs in the United States and its general deflation (Yang & Besnainou, 106). The RMB is the official currency of the People’s Republic in China having principal or base unit which is yuan. Literally, the RMB means people’s currency. Currency is significantly use for modern exchange of goods and services and this play important role how the country’s economy should operate. There must be significant unbalance economic activities between nations when for instance the US currency is overvalued while China’s currency remains undervalued. On the other hand, suppose the US continues to go for devaluation, this will necessary create significant impacts on its internal economy particularly on the growth of its industries. Considering that US economy and China’s are interrelated and both have active participation in exchange, the move of the ot her may significantly create impacts on how the other should run. Thus, there is a great consideration of knowing if RMB is really undervalued. There are two basic reference rates often considered when evaluating the valuation of currency exchange rate. The first is with respect to purchasing power parity. The next is comparing exchange rate needed to induce trade balance, or balance on the current account. Despite there are basic measurements in finding currency valuation, there are disagreements whether RMB is undervalued or not. There are different arguments whether RMB needs to appreciate or needs to decrease. The question now is how really it is to evaluate RMB which would be fair enough in order to understand its valuation. Reported in Roubini.com (par. 1 – par. 15) are different opinions from economic experts regarding the undervaluation issue of RMB which also involved different measurements they used. Structural shock and technical difficulties facing China’s economy provide no fair measurement

Does the threat of prison serve as a deterrent Discuss with reference Essay

Does the threat of prison serve as a deterrent Discuss with reference to the work of at least two academic theorists - Essay Example Across the societies and in all nations, a prison system has been set and mandated with primary responsibility and authority of punishing these criminal offenders who have been found guilty by court. To deter is to use punishment as way of averting criminal acts. A prison is a setting where criminal offenders are contained legally as way of punishment for the crimes they have committed (Perrier and Pink, 2003:58). The question that, therefore, rises is if prisons actually serve to deter crime from happening. This essay will discuss the extent and ways in which prisons function in their attempt to reduce and deter crime and demonstrate if actually this objective is achieved. This will be based and compared to the theoretical perspectives of prison and role in crime deterrence. It is of great concern to anyone who has interest in crime prevention to critically analyse the role of prison system in curbing crime through preventing a reoccurrence and initiation of a new one. There has been a massive transformation in the recent time in the prison departments with different people expressing divergent opinions concerning the main role of a prison. Some people would argue that the prison should be a rehabilitation centre with structures and facilities that are suppose to empower the offenders and show them a new perspective in life. Other people from a different school of thought would say that availing positive and empowerment tools to offenders would be reinforcing criminal acts and, therefore, no one would learn from the mistakes. Punishment is the best way to unlearn behaviour rather that exposing a criminal to positive and enabling conditions. While it appears to be a motivation and reinforcement of a criminal behaviour, a holistic rehabilitative measure have been put in most prisons to make sure that prisoners come out of their dens afresh with clearly set goals and ambition so as to make a change in the society. This has

The genetic basis of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) Essay

The genetic basis of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency - Essay Example 008, pp.64, define G6PD deficiency as â€Å"an X-linked, hereditary genetic defect due to mutations in the G6PD gene, which cause functional variants with many biochemical and clinical phenotypes†. Most of the mutations are single base changes that result in amino acid substitutions. G6PD deficiency presents itself clinically in the form of acute haemolytic anaemia (Capellini & Fiorelli, 2008). The gene responsible for the production of the enzyme G6PD is the G6PD gene G6PD is the catalyst responsible for oxidising glucose-6-phosphate to 6-phosphogluconate, while at the same time it is also responsible for the reduction of the oxidised form of nicotanamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+) to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). This function of G6PD in the production of NADPH is important, as it is NADPH that plays a role as a cofactor in many biosynthetic reactions and maintaining glutathione in its reduced form (Carter & Gross, 2008). Reduced glutathione functions as a scavenger within cells, removing the dangerous oxidative metabolites in the cells. In addition with assistance from the enzyme glutathione peroxidase, it neutralizes hydrogen peroxide, which is harmful to the cell, by converting it to water. G6PD and its role in the production of NAPDH is important to red blood cells, as NAPDH is the sole contributor of protection to the red blood cells against oxidative stresses, The importance of G6PD to the red blood cells lies in it being the sole source of NAPDH and the protection NAPDH offers the red blood cells (Carter & Gross, 2008). The G6PD gene that is responsible for the enzyme Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase is found on the terminal region of the long arm of the X chromosome (Xq28), at a distance of less than 2 centi-Morgan centrometric to the Factor VIII gene. G6PD deficiency is a genetic condition, wherein the molecular grounds for the disease stems from mutations in the G6PD locus at Xq28. The length of the gene is 18

Aggregate Demand and Supply Models Essay Example for Free

Aggregate Demand and Supply Models Essay As it stands currently the existing effect of the economic factors on aggregate demand and supply are: unemployment, consumer income, and interest rates. In this paper we identify the existing effect of the economic factors on aggregate demand and supply. The American people have little to no income when unemployed, this in turn causes a decrease in demand for the economy. This type of event causes the aggregate demand to curve to the left. One of the main reasons unemployment remains high to this day is the lack of demand. A shortfall in aggregate demand is precisely the type of issue that can be addressed by monetary policy, however, to do so we need continuous monetary stimulus to progress toward maximum employment stability. The crash of the housing market has set tremendous limitation on consumer and their spending. Sternness on behalf of the government to a certain extent has decreased aggregate demand during this recovery period. These actions have directly impacted growth. What this means to us is that lower government spending and higher taxes call for disposable income for consumers, work for government contractors diminishing, and a decrease in government payroll. Another factor that has had great effect and impact are the levels of uncertainty. The events leading to this state have yet to be resolved which in turn have caused a lack of willingness and confidence within consumers. In the beginning the levels of uncertainty reflected the force of influence the recession had on us as consumers . This is something that had not been experienced in several years which made it difficult for us to handle or even find a way to get by in a more successful demeanor. After extensive research and analysis it is safe to say the supply-side considerations explain some of the rise in unemployment, which once again confirm the lack of demand as well as the fact that the economy is suffering first and foremost of a weak demand rather than a shortage of supply. References Williams, J. C. (2013, February 25). The Economy and Fed Policy: Follow the Demand. Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco. Retrieved from http://www.frbsf.org/economic-research/publications/economic-letter/2013/february/economy-fed-policy-follow-demand/ Thoma, M. (2012, March 28). Demand, not supply, is restraining the economy. CBS News. Retrieved from http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-505123_162-57405230/demand-not-supply-is-restraining-the-economy/

Rafflesia Species in Malaysia Identification

Rafflesia Species in Malaysia Identification INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND STUDY There are a number of unique plant types in the world which are on the brink of extinction, or are so extremely limited in range. For example the beautiful palms such as the Talipot Palm (Corypha elata), Johannis teysmannia in Sarawak and Malaya, and also Livistona in West Sumatra. The largest flower in the world, Rafflesia arnoldii and related species, are going to vanish unless more nature reserves are created for such remarkable plants in Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and the Philippines. Rafflesia is a genus of flowering plants that is made up of 23 known species. The best known of these species is Rafflesia arboldii which has the distinction of being the worlds largest flower, reaching a diameter of about three feet. The genus Rafflesia gets its name from Sir Stamford Raffles, the founder of the British colony of Singapore (Walter et al., 1998). Rafflesia is a unique plant because of its dimensions unlike other flowers. This circumstance makes it widely known. It is also become an icon for conservation especially of the rain forest area. The rarity creates interest among nature lovers, tourists and the general public. The fact that some species may be in the brink of extinction alarms conservation groups. Its little-known biology and reproductive ecology spurs the interest of botanists and ecologist (Nais, 2004). Rafflesia is also thought to be one of the rarest of all plant genera which is only found in Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines. 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT Malaysia is very fortunate for being one of the habitats of Rafflesia. But unfortunately, all of the known species of Rafflesia are threatened or endangered. In Malaysia the Rafflesia is only a Totally Protected Plant by law in Sarawak. In Sabah and Peninsular Malaysia it is only safeguarded by laws when found in protected areas like National or State Parks. In 2002, 44 out of the 83 Rafflesia flowers found in Sabah were outside of designated conservation places (Sabah Travel Guide, 2004). Eight out of the 23 known species of Rafflesia can be found in Malaysia, most of them in the jungles on the island of Borneo. Some species of Rafflesia are endemic species. That means these species are native and can be found only in that location. For example, Rafflesia tengku-adlinii seems to be endemic to Sabah only while Rafflesia tuan-mudae endemic to Sarawak only. Because the Rafflesia is only found in specific areas and its locations often difficult to reach, and because it only blooms for a very short time, its life cycle or the methods of pollination and seed dispersal is very unclear. This makes the appropriate methods to conserve it quite difficult to be found. Other than that, in Peninsular Malaysia flower buds are still sold as traditional medicine. The buds are seen as a sign of fertility, and are given to help mothers recover after birth. The over collection of these buds has not helped with conservation efforts but further drastically reduced the number of Rafflesia in the wild, accentuating the problem the alarmingly fast transformation of jungles into palm oil plantation creates (Sabah Travel Guide, 2004). The Rafflesia is a delicate plant that relies on an intact environment and as such is naturally extremely vulnerable to deforestation and development. Conservation must be done to protect this species from extinct. The expert system may help the user to identify the Rafflesia species in Malaysia. By using an expert system, the user may gather information about approaches to conserve the Rafflesia. 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES There are some purposes for this research. The main objectives of this research are: to identify the Rafflesia species in Malaysia based on their physical characteristics. to develop an expert system which help the public to recognize the Rafflesia species in Malaysia. to verify system performance in order to make it applicable to the real world. 1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY The scope of this research is mainly about the Rafflesia flower and the approaches to conserve it. This research also about the system named an expert system which using Macromedia Dreamweaver 8. The system is the tool or mechanism which contains all collected information, recommendation and opinion from many expertises and also results from so many researches done. The target users of this system are tourists, publics, nature lovers and also those who interested in conserving the Rafflesia plant. The system that will be developed will provide the public about the Rafflesia species in Malaysia as well as the approaches to conserve the Rafflesia. By using an expert system, it would easier the public to access about this endangered plant. 1.5 THESIS ORGANIZATION This thesis consist of five chapters; introduction, literature review, methodology, results and discussion and conclusion. Chapter 2 is about literature review. This chapter includes the Rafflesia characteristics, the diversity and habitat of Rafflesia, identification of Rafflesia species as well as treats and conservation of Rafflesia. Introduction of expert system also included in this chapter. Expert systems typically have three basic components; a knowledge base, an inference engine and user interface. Chapter 3 is about methodology. This chapter contains the development stage of expert system for Rafflesia species identification. There are five stages in developing an expert system which are task analysis, knowledge acquisition process, prototype development, expansion and refinement and lastly verification and validation. Chapter 4 is about the result and discussion. This chapter consists of the architecture of the system and also the flow in the developing system process. This research is using an IF-THEN rule in form of asking question to the user. Chapter 5 is about the conclusion. This chapter consists of conclusion for overall of this research. It includes the expert system technology, the prototype development of expert system and the recommendation to make the system move effective and also ways to improve it. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION The Rafflesia is one of the most magnificent flowers ever known to the botanical world. It is such a big flower with odd appearance, exceptional, rare and also mysterious. It is also immense scientific and public interest. Rafflesia in bloom has been described as simply awesome (Nais, 2001). This chapter will discuss about Rafflesia characteristics, diversity, habitat, species identification as well as treats and conservation of Rafflesia. 2.2 RAFFLESIA CHARACTERISTICS In general, Rafflesia flowers consist of five leathery petals that are orange in colour and mottled with cream-coloured warts (Attenborough, 1995). The flower also has no leaves, stem or roots. The dramatic Rafflesia flowers are the largest single flowers in the world; the leathery petals can reach over 90 centimetres across (Attenborough, 1995). Rafflesia is a parasite that depends completely upon its host which supplies nutrients and water to the flower. These host plants are vines of Tetrastigma spp., and the Rafflesia plant is itself not visible until the reproduction stage when flowers first bud through the woody vine and then open into the magnificent spectacle that is world-renowned today (Nais, 2001). Most flowers in the genus give off and smell of rotting flesh, hence the local called it the corpse flower. When in bloom, the flower displays its five fleshy petals or so called perigone lobes. The diameter of the various species of Rafflesia flower ranges from approximately 20 cm to a record diameter of 106.7 cm (Meijer, 1985). Other than that, the unique part of this giant flower is the flowers can take up to ten months to develop from the first visible bud to the open bloom, which may last from 5 to 7 days only. Currently 17 species of Rafflesia are recognised and these mainly differ in the morphology of their flowers (Nais, 2001). There is a deep well in the centre of the flower containing a central raised disc raised that supports many vertical spines (Attenborough, 1995). The sexual organs are located beneath the rim of the disk, and male and female flowers are separate (Attenborough, 1995). 2.3 RAFFLESIA DIVERSITY There are 23 completely known species and 4 incompletely known species of Rafflesia as recognized by Meijer on 1997. Table 3.1 shows the known species of Rafflesia and Table 3.2 shows the unknown species of Rafflesia as recognized by Meijer on 1997. 2.4 RAFFLESIA HABITAT Rafflesia is restricted to the western part of the phytogeographical region of Malesia, which is known as the Sunda shelf (Nais, 2001). The region is floristically distinct, with a clear boundary from surrounding region (Steenis, 1950). Table 2.3 shows the genus distribution in their landmass location. Number in parentheses denotes the number of Rafflesia species present in each area. Book of Rafflesia Magnificent Flower of Sabah by Kamarudin Mat Saleh (1991) A total of 23 names of Rafflesia species have been published between 1821 and 1988 (index Kewensis, 1994). Six of the names are now considered synonyms, and a further four have inadequate type material and are treated as insufficiently known species (Meijer, 1997). The western most extension of Rafflesia is Acheh District, Sumatra, followed by the Ranong Province in Thailand, about 5 km from the Myanmar border (Meijer Elliot, 1990; Banziger, 1991; Elliot, 1991; Banziger et al., 1993). The eastern limit is Mount Apo Timur and at Gunung Dadum in Eastern Sabah (Nais, 2001). The northern most limits are at Mount Makiling, Los Banos Province, on Luzon Island in the Philippnes (Madulid Agoo, 1996), and the southern limit is the province of Java, Indonesia. The distribution of Rafflesias genus is shown in Figure 2.1. 2.5 IDENTIFICATION OF RAFFLESIA SPECIES The first description of the morphology of Rafflesia was made by Robert Brown (1821, 1835), who provided a detailed and meticulous description and illustrations of the male and female flowers of Rafflesia arnoldii (Nais, 2001). The taxonomy of Rafflesia is based entirely on the floral morphology (form and structure) of the flower with most emphasis on the outer appearance. The current species delimitation of Rafflesia is based on eight major characters. These eight variable characters are listed below (Nais, 2001) and the radial section of Rafflesia flower drawn by Yong Ket Hyun, after Meijer 1985 are shown in Figure 2.2. Size (diameter of open flowers varies from 15 cm in R. manillana to nearly 1 m in R. arnoldii); Diameter of the diaphragm aperture (ranging form 3-9 cm in R. micropylora, to about 20 cm in R. arnoldii); Number of disk processes (from none in R. rochussenii to 20-60 in R. arnoldii); Size and number of white spots (called blots, specks or warts) on the perigone lobes and diaphragm (from few to large in R. hasseltii to numerous and small in R. arnoldii); Number and size of the windows on the inside or lower surface of the diaphragm (3-5 rings of round spots in R. micropylora, seven rings of round spots in R. kerrii, or five rings of elongate oval spots in R. pricei) Number of anthers (from about 15 in R. manillana to 40 in R. arnoldii); Structure and length of ramenta, and position of their occurrence (from short and more or less postulate in R. manillana to up to 12 mm long in R. micropylora; in R. schadenbergiana, ramenta occur on the undersite of the diaphragm; ramenta in various species may have apices branched or unbranched, swollen or crateriform); and Number of annuli at the base of the perigone tube and column, all species has either 1 or 2 (for example, 2 in R. pricei). In this research, the focus is on the Rafflesia species in Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia only. There are eight species of Rafflesia can be found around Malaysia which is four species (R. azlanii, R. cantleyi, R. hasseltii and R. kerrii) located in Peninsular Malaysia, three species (R. tengku-adlinii, R. keithi and R. pricei) can be found in Sabah and four species (R. tuan-mudae, R. pricei and R. keithii) in Sarawak. 2.5.1 Rafflesia cantleyi Solms-Laubach Rafflesia cantleyi was named after M. Cantley, curator of the Singapore Botanic Gardens in 1880 to 1886, who collected the type specimen in 1881. This species was described by H. Graft Solms-Laubach based on a collection made by M. Cantley in 1881. Rafflesia cantleyi has open flower dimension from 30 to 55 cm in diameter. Its perigone lobes are up to 14 cm long and 18 cm wide. It has 6 to 8 whitish warts in radial and lateral directions, about 10 in the basal row. The diaphragm opening is 4 to 8 cm across and rounded shape or sometimes angular. It has 5 concentric rings of oval white blots. Its ramenta is 2 cm long in upper type while middle and lower type is 10 to 12 mm longs, or sometimes branched, almost all with swollen apices. Its number of anthers is from 20 to 25 and this species can be found in Peninsular Malaysia only (Perak, Kedah, Perlis, Selangor, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang and Tioman Island). Figure 2.3 shows the picture of Rafflesia cantleyi. 2.5.2 Rafflesia hasseltii Suringar Rafflesia hasseltii was described by Suringer in 1879 from discovery in Central Sumatra. R. hasseltii has an open flower dimension from 35 to 50 cm in diameter. It has 10 to 13 cm long and 14 to 17 cm wide of perigone lobes. It has whitish-pinkish blots across and large size of blots ranging from 5 x 3 to 10 x 1 cm. The clear contrast of snow white blots on bright brick-red background easily distinguishes this species from others. Its window is whitish or pale yellowish with a dark brown zone near the rim and the compound ramenta near the attachment point of the diaphragm gradually become white blots (window) on the lower part of the diaphragm. The R. hasseltii ramentas upper type is toadstool-like compound ramenta which gradually becoming the white blots of the windows. While for middle and lower type is generally linear with swollen apices. The number of anthers is 20 and this species can be found in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo and its altitudinal distribution is from 4 00 to 600 m. Figure 2.4 shows the picture of Rafflesia hasseltii. 2.5.3 Rafflesia keithii Meijer Rafflesia keithii was named after Harry G. Keith, the former Conservator of Forests in British North Borneo or nowadays called Sabah, Malaysia. This species was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia keithii has an open flower dimension from 80 to 94 cm in diameter. The perigone lobes are 10 to 12 cm across at the median of the lobes but sometimes it has six-lobed. Its colour is numerous white warts with dense, more or less of the same sizes. The diaphragm opening is normally 5 concentric of white warts in about 40 radial rows, each surrounded by a dark red-brown margin. Its window has 5 to 6 rings of large, white blots, those nearer to the rim merging. The ramenta for upper type is 5 to 6 mm long which often fascicled (in bundles) middle and for lower type is solitary and only some with a swollen head. Rafflesia keithii always has 40 numbers of anthers. This species can be found only in Borneo with 250 to 940 m of altitudinal distribution. Figure 2.5 shows the picture of Raff lesia keithii. 2.5.4 Rafflesia kerrii Meijer Rafflesia kerrii was named after A.F.G. Kerr, Thailands first Government Botanist, who collected the specimen from which the specimen was described. This species was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia kerrii has an open flower dimension of 50 to 70 cm in diameter. It has 13 to 20 cm long and 19 to 24 cm wide of perigone lobes. Its colour is dull red with brownish tinge and have numerous and scattered warts with 3 to 4 mm space between them. The size of warts for R. kerrii is the smallest compared to other species. The diaphragm opening ia about 12 to 17 cm across and have upper face with 3 to 4 concentric rings of white spots surrounded by a dark red margin. The characteristics for its window are bright white in colour with roundish to elliptic blots and up to 10 mm of diameter. This species of Rafflesia has ramenta that mostly unbranched and only slightly swollen at apex. Its anthers consist of about 26 to 31. The distribution of Rafflesia kerrii is surrounding Thailand a nd Peninsular Malaysia which at attitude from 500 to 1000 m. Figure 2.6 shows the picture of Rafflesia kerrii. 2.5.5 Rafflesia pricei Meijer Rafflesia pricei was named after William Price, a honourary plant collector for the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, who collected this species along the trail to the Mamut Copper Mine. This species of Rafflesia was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia pricei can only be found in Sabah only. It has 16 to 45 cm of opening flower dimension. It has 40 to 80 raised whitish spots (warts) surrounded by brick-red background. The spots range from 1 to 4 cm in length and the surface is minutely rugolose giving a matted appearance while the red background is densely papillose (Beaman at al., 1988). The diaphragm opening is about 5 to 6 cm in diameter and the diaphragm has 4 to 5 irregular rings of white spots smaller than those of the perigone lobes, surrounded by brick-red areas that grade into the cream-white background, the inner edge has a narrow white margin with a continuous reddish-brown area just outside the white rim (Beaman et al., 1988). The R. pricei has 4 to 5 concentric rings of large white window panes or blots and contracting with the bright red background. The interior of the perigone tube from the base of the tube to the lower edge of the diaphragm is lines with wine-red ramenta. The upper type (near the diaphragms opening) is about 2 to 6 long while middle type (near the insertion of the perigone lobes) is about 4 to 6 cm long and the lower type (near the base of the perigone tube) is about 6 to 7 mm long. The number of anthers for R. pricei is 20. Figure 2.6 shows the picture of Rafflesia pricei. 2.5.6 Rafflesia tengku-adlinii Mat Salleh Latiff Rafflesia tengku-adlini was named after Tengku Datuk (Dr.) Adlin Tengku Zainal Abidin, a keen naturalist and conservationist in Sabah who facilitated the documentation of the species after its recovery. This species was described by Kamarudin Mat Salleh and A. Latiff Mohamed from a specimen collected at Mount Trus Madi, Sabah in the year of 1989. R. tengku-adlinii is endemic species to Sabah only at altitude 610 to 800 m. Its opening flower dimension is about 20 to 25 cm diameter while its perigone lobes are 7 to 12 cm long and 12 to 16 cm wide. The colour of R. tengku-adlinii is bright to dull orange throughout with warts throughout the upper surface except near the diaphragm opening. The diaphragm opening is up to 12.5 cm wide and about 3 cm in diameter. It has no windows and the lower diaphragm covered with ramenta. The ramenta occurs right up to the opening of the diaphragm with 3 to 5 cm long, apices swollen, upper, middle and lower types all have fine bristles. The number of an thers for this species is 20. Figure 2.8 shows the picture of Rafflesia tengku-adlinii. 2.5.7 Rafflesia tuan-mudae Beccari Rafflesia tuan-mudae was named after Mr. Carlo (Charles) Brooke Tuan Muda of Sarawak. This species wasfirst collected from Mount Pueh, Sarawak, from which specimen the species was described by Beccari in 1868. Rafflesia tuan-mudae also is an endemic species. It only can be found in Sarawak. The opening flower dimension can reach from 44 to 92 cm in diameter. The numbers of perigone lobes is usually 5, sometimes 6 (at Gunung Gading National Park, Sarawak (personal observation), or even 7 (in Cagar Alam Gunung Raya Pasi (Zuhud et al., 1998). The colour of R. tuan-mudae is much like R. keithii, but it only has 5 to 8 warts across the median. The diaphragm opening is from 15 to 18 cm and the number of anthers is unknown. Figure 2.9 shows the picture of Rafflesia tuan-mudae. 2.5.8 Rafflesia azlanii Latiff M. Wong Rafflesia azlanii is endemic species to Peninsular Malaysia only at altitude 150 to 400 m. Its opening flower dimension is about 38 to 50 cm diameter while its perigone lobes are 9.5 to 10.5 cm long and 12 to 14.5 cm wide. The colour and pattern of R. azlanii is large and continuous (not all like R. hasseltii) whitish warts with brick-red background. The diaphragm opening is from 4.7 to 5.5 cm in diameter. During an early stage of blooming, the open diaphragm is about 7 cm and when the flower bloom fully, the open diaphragm become wider up to 18 cm. The flowers window is large whitish scattered of warts. The ramenta for upper type is 6 mm long while for lower type is 4 mm long. The number of anthers for this species is unknown. Figure 2.10 shows the picture of Rafflesia azlanii. 2.6 THREATS AND CONSERVATION Rafflesia is one of the most threatened and also one of the rarest plants in the world. The existence of this prodigious flower is precarious and it will eventually become extinct without active conservation efforts. 2.6.1 Threats Rafflesia are inherently rare as a result of a number of factors of their life cycle; they have a double habitat specialisation, as they can only successfully parasitise particular species and these species in turn are found only in specific habitats (Nais, 2001). In addition to this factor, there is an extremely unbalanced sex ratio in the Rafflesia flowers observed, with many more male than female flowers (Nais, 2001). Flower buds have a high level of mortality and only 10 to 18 percent go on to bloom, these only lasting for a few days; the chances of a male and female flower being in bloom at the same time in a close enough vicinity to be pollinated is therefore extremely slim (Nais, 2001). In addition to these inherent factors, there is widespread habitat destruction within much of the rain forested area of Southeast Asia and Rafflesia buds are also collected for traditional medicine to treat fertility problems, in parts of their range. 2.6.2 Conservation The tropical rain forest is the most threatened environment and has experienced the greatest loss of species during our lifetime (Lucas Synge, 1981). Human disturbance is one of the factors that result great loss of this natural habitats and species. Under the present circumstances, Rafflesia appears to be one of the genera approaching extinction (Nais, 2001). Therefore, the tropical rain forest and all their inhabitants must be the main focus in conservation efforts. 2.6.3 Conservation Status of Rafflesia The World Conservation Union, IUCN (1984, 1988, and 1997) established five main categories to highlight the conservation status of species: Extinct (no longer known to exist in the wild) Endangered (species that have a high likelihood of becoming extinct in the near future) Vulnerable (species that may become endangered in the near future because populations are decreasing in size throughout the range) Rare (species that have small total numbers of individuals, often due to limited geographical ranges or low population densities) Insufficiently known (species that probably belong in one of the preceding categories but are not sufficiently known to be assigned to a specific category). The conservation status of Rafflesia can only be reliably assessed by acquiring and analyzing extensive field data of each species. These data include the distribution and the characteristics of sites, rarity and reproductive ecology. The conservation status of all Rafflesia species based on current knowledge which is from published account recognized by IUCN (1997), present analysis using the WCMC/IUCN classification of Conservation Status and present analysis using the IUCNs new Categories of Conservation Status are shown in Table 2.4. 2.6.4 Approaches to Conserve Rafflesia There are two approaches can be taken according to Nais (2001). One of the approaches and also the best conservation approach for any species is in situ (or on site) conservation which mean leaving it to grow wild in its original habitat. In situ conservation is usually more effective than other approaches because natural condition often impossible to duplicate artificially. In situ conservation strategy of Rafflesia involves: i) Protection inside established Conservation Areas One of the major problem to conserve the Rafflesia is because so many tourist eager to pay homepage to existing Rafflesia sites, cause massive trampling, even to level where some populations are trampled to extinction. The mechanisms to control over-visitation are inadequate, and the infrastructure to minimize its impact is not well developed. One way to avoid trampling is by constructing boardwalks or walkways over Rafflesia population. In addition, Rafflesia sites outside conservation areas need to be made available for tourists, thus reducing the pressure for population within conservation areas (Nais, 2001). ii) Designating New Conservation Areas It may not be possible to make each Rafflesia site become conservation areas. A more plausible strategy is to synergize the Rafflesia cause with other issues, such as the protection of forests for water catchment, total habitat and biodiversity conservation, and also for nature tourism development (Nais, 2001). This may allow larger area to be conserved to protect their habitat and also their population. iii) Protection of Sites in other Areas Many Rafflsia locations are outside the protected areas which within the land belong to the indigenous community. Cooperation from the landlords is very important in order to conserve the Rafflesia. By doing opening sites for tourism is one viable conservation solution and apart from that, it also can generate income for the landowners. The second approach is by doing ex situ conservation. Ex situ conservation (sometimes referred to as off-site conservation) is the conservation of plants away from their natural occurrence [Given (1994) cited in Nais (2001)]. This approach includes conserving whole plants or plants in botanical garden and gene banks, as well as using laboratory techniques such as tissues culture for their propagation and preservation. Bringing Rafflesia into cultivation has always been appealing. Its cultivation would important not only for its conservation, but also as an important step towards utilization of the plants for ecotourism purposes (Nais, 2001). Prior to the success by Nais et al. (in press, 2000), many researchers had unsuccessfully tried various methods and techniques of ex situ propagation of Rafflesia. These attempts have included efforts to grow Rafflesia by way of seed insertion into host plants and the translocating of Tetrastigma plants with Rafflesia buds (Nais, 1997; Nais Wilcock, 1999). Similar cattempts conducted by various other people have also not been successful, for example: seed germination, tissues culture of Rafflesia and grafting of infected host plants into uninfected ones (Ghazally, 1991; Latif Mat-Salleh, 1991; Zuhud et al., 1998). These failures have initially led some researchers to believe that ex situ cultivation possibly may never be a viable option for the conservation of Rafflesia species (Meijer, 1997) until Nais et al. achieve successful in 1999. 2.7 EXPERT SYSTEM AS A SOLUTION Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science that is principally concerned with using computational models to understand how humans think (Tanimoto, 1987). Major research areas include expert systems, search methods, knowledge representation, logical and probabilistic reasoning, learning, natural language understanding, vision, and robotics (Cohen and Feigenbaum, 1982). The most successful application of Artificial Intelligence so far is the development of Decision Support System (DSS), particularly expert system, which is a computer program that act as a consultant or advisor to decision makers (Generation5, 2005). According to Turban Aronson (2001), an expert system is a system that uses human knowledge captured in a computer to solve problems that ordinarily require human expertise, or, a computer program that can solve problems in a specific area of knowledge (the problem domain) as well as a human expert (OKeefe et al., 1987), or, that automates tasks that are normally performed by specially trained or talented people (Shannon et al., 1985). Usually when an organization having problem to solve and have to make critical decision, they often turn to consultants or experts seeking for advice. These experts or consultants have specific knowledge and experience in the problem area. They are aware of alternative solutions, chances of success, and costs that the organization may incur if the problem is not solved. Experts can diagnose problems correctly and solve them satisfactorily within a reasonable time frame.However, human experts are expensive, and they may not be readily available. Expert systems are an attempt to mimic human experts (Turban, Rainer, Potter, 2001). The expert system begins by asking questions about the problem to be solved. When the needed information has been gathered (inputted by user), the system offers suggestions about how the problem can be solved (McEneaney, 1992). According to Wentworth (1993), expert systems differ from conventional programs in the way they store and use information. In a conventional program, the operations never vary as the programmer predetermines them. The conventional program contains precisely defined logical formulas and data, and if any data element is missing, the program will not run. The expert system, like the human expert, contains heuristic information and can function with incomplete information. 2.7.1 Components of Expert System An expert system is typically composed of at least three primary components. These are the inference engine, the knowledge base, and the working memory (Wikibooks, 2010). An expert system, also known as knowledge-based system, uses the knowledge and experience of experts to solve problems in a reasonable period of time. Human experts solve problems by using their factual knowledge and reasoning ability. In the other hand, an expert system uses its knowledge base and inference engine to perform a similar task. Figure 2.1 shows the main components in an expert system. The knowledge base supplies specific facts and rules regarding a domain, while the inference engine offers the reasoning ability that allows the expert system to make conclusions. The user interface is the medium between the expert system and the user. An expert is someone who has the ability to achieve a specific task efficiently by using his or her skills, experience, and knowledge in a specific domain. 2.7.1.1 Knowledge Base Expert systems are based on human knowledge and reasoning patterns (Wikibooks, 2010). The knowledge base an expert uses is what he learned at school, from colleagues, and from years of experience. The more experience he has, the larger his store of knowledge. Knowledge allows him to interpret the information in his databases to advantage in diagnosis, design, and analysis (Edward and Robert, 1993). This knowledge must be extracted from a human expert by a specialized knowledge engineer. Knowledge engineers ask the expert questions about his knowledge and his reasoning processes, and attempts to translate that into Rafflesia Species in Malaysia Identification Rafflesia Species in Malaysia Identification INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND STUDY There are a number of unique plant types in the world which are on the brink of extinction, or are so extremely limited in range. For example the beautiful palms such as the Talipot Palm (Corypha elata), Johannis teysmannia in Sarawak and Malaya, and also Livistona in West Sumatra. The largest flower in the world, Rafflesia arnoldii and related species, are going to vanish unless more nature reserves are created for such remarkable plants in Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and the Philippines. Rafflesia is a genus of flowering plants that is made up of 23 known species. The best known of these species is Rafflesia arboldii which has the distinction of being the worlds largest flower, reaching a diameter of about three feet. The genus Rafflesia gets its name from Sir Stamford Raffles, the founder of the British colony of Singapore (Walter et al., 1998). Rafflesia is a unique plant because of its dimensions unlike other flowers. This circumstance makes it widely known. It is also become an icon for conservation especially of the rain forest area. The rarity creates interest among nature lovers, tourists and the general public. The fact that some species may be in the brink of extinction alarms conservation groups. Its little-known biology and reproductive ecology spurs the interest of botanists and ecologist (Nais, 2004). Rafflesia is also thought to be one of the rarest of all plant genera which is only found in Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines. 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT Malaysia is very fortunate for being one of the habitats of Rafflesia. But unfortunately, all of the known species of Rafflesia are threatened or endangered. In Malaysia the Rafflesia is only a Totally Protected Plant by law in Sarawak. In Sabah and Peninsular Malaysia it is only safeguarded by laws when found in protected areas like National or State Parks. In 2002, 44 out of the 83 Rafflesia flowers found in Sabah were outside of designated conservation places (Sabah Travel Guide, 2004). Eight out of the 23 known species of Rafflesia can be found in Malaysia, most of them in the jungles on the island of Borneo. Some species of Rafflesia are endemic species. That means these species are native and can be found only in that location. For example, Rafflesia tengku-adlinii seems to be endemic to Sabah only while Rafflesia tuan-mudae endemic to Sarawak only. Because the Rafflesia is only found in specific areas and its locations often difficult to reach, and because it only blooms for a very short time, its life cycle or the methods of pollination and seed dispersal is very unclear. This makes the appropriate methods to conserve it quite difficult to be found. Other than that, in Peninsular Malaysia flower buds are still sold as traditional medicine. The buds are seen as a sign of fertility, and are given to help mothers recover after birth. The over collection of these buds has not helped with conservation efforts but further drastically reduced the number of Rafflesia in the wild, accentuating the problem the alarmingly fast transformation of jungles into palm oil plantation creates (Sabah Travel Guide, 2004). The Rafflesia is a delicate plant that relies on an intact environment and as such is naturally extremely vulnerable to deforestation and development. Conservation must be done to protect this species from extinct. The expert system may help the user to identify the Rafflesia species in Malaysia. By using an expert system, the user may gather information about approaches to conserve the Rafflesia. 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES There are some purposes for this research. The main objectives of this research are: to identify the Rafflesia species in Malaysia based on their physical characteristics. to develop an expert system which help the public to recognize the Rafflesia species in Malaysia. to verify system performance in order to make it applicable to the real world. 1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY The scope of this research is mainly about the Rafflesia flower and the approaches to conserve it. This research also about the system named an expert system which using Macromedia Dreamweaver 8. The system is the tool or mechanism which contains all collected information, recommendation and opinion from many expertises and also results from so many researches done. The target users of this system are tourists, publics, nature lovers and also those who interested in conserving the Rafflesia plant. The system that will be developed will provide the public about the Rafflesia species in Malaysia as well as the approaches to conserve the Rafflesia. By using an expert system, it would easier the public to access about this endangered plant. 1.5 THESIS ORGANIZATION This thesis consist of five chapters; introduction, literature review, methodology, results and discussion and conclusion. Chapter 2 is about literature review. This chapter includes the Rafflesia characteristics, the diversity and habitat of Rafflesia, identification of Rafflesia species as well as treats and conservation of Rafflesia. Introduction of expert system also included in this chapter. Expert systems typically have three basic components; a knowledge base, an inference engine and user interface. Chapter 3 is about methodology. This chapter contains the development stage of expert system for Rafflesia species identification. There are five stages in developing an expert system which are task analysis, knowledge acquisition process, prototype development, expansion and refinement and lastly verification and validation. Chapter 4 is about the result and discussion. This chapter consists of the architecture of the system and also the flow in the developing system process. This research is using an IF-THEN rule in form of asking question to the user. Chapter 5 is about the conclusion. This chapter consists of conclusion for overall of this research. It includes the expert system technology, the prototype development of expert system and the recommendation to make the system move effective and also ways to improve it. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION The Rafflesia is one of the most magnificent flowers ever known to the botanical world. It is such a big flower with odd appearance, exceptional, rare and also mysterious. It is also immense scientific and public interest. Rafflesia in bloom has been described as simply awesome (Nais, 2001). This chapter will discuss about Rafflesia characteristics, diversity, habitat, species identification as well as treats and conservation of Rafflesia. 2.2 RAFFLESIA CHARACTERISTICS In general, Rafflesia flowers consist of five leathery petals that are orange in colour and mottled with cream-coloured warts (Attenborough, 1995). The flower also has no leaves, stem or roots. The dramatic Rafflesia flowers are the largest single flowers in the world; the leathery petals can reach over 90 centimetres across (Attenborough, 1995). Rafflesia is a parasite that depends completely upon its host which supplies nutrients and water to the flower. These host plants are vines of Tetrastigma spp., and the Rafflesia plant is itself not visible until the reproduction stage when flowers first bud through the woody vine and then open into the magnificent spectacle that is world-renowned today (Nais, 2001). Most flowers in the genus give off and smell of rotting flesh, hence the local called it the corpse flower. When in bloom, the flower displays its five fleshy petals or so called perigone lobes. The diameter of the various species of Rafflesia flower ranges from approximately 20 cm to a record diameter of 106.7 cm (Meijer, 1985). Other than that, the unique part of this giant flower is the flowers can take up to ten months to develop from the first visible bud to the open bloom, which may last from 5 to 7 days only. Currently 17 species of Rafflesia are recognised and these mainly differ in the morphology of their flowers (Nais, 2001). There is a deep well in the centre of the flower containing a central raised disc raised that supports many vertical spines (Attenborough, 1995). The sexual organs are located beneath the rim of the disk, and male and female flowers are separate (Attenborough, 1995). 2.3 RAFFLESIA DIVERSITY There are 23 completely known species and 4 incompletely known species of Rafflesia as recognized by Meijer on 1997. Table 3.1 shows the known species of Rafflesia and Table 3.2 shows the unknown species of Rafflesia as recognized by Meijer on 1997. 2.4 RAFFLESIA HABITAT Rafflesia is restricted to the western part of the phytogeographical region of Malesia, which is known as the Sunda shelf (Nais, 2001). The region is floristically distinct, with a clear boundary from surrounding region (Steenis, 1950). Table 2.3 shows the genus distribution in their landmass location. Number in parentheses denotes the number of Rafflesia species present in each area. Book of Rafflesia Magnificent Flower of Sabah by Kamarudin Mat Saleh (1991) A total of 23 names of Rafflesia species have been published between 1821 and 1988 (index Kewensis, 1994). Six of the names are now considered synonyms, and a further four have inadequate type material and are treated as insufficiently known species (Meijer, 1997). The western most extension of Rafflesia is Acheh District, Sumatra, followed by the Ranong Province in Thailand, about 5 km from the Myanmar border (Meijer Elliot, 1990; Banziger, 1991; Elliot, 1991; Banziger et al., 1993). The eastern limit is Mount Apo Timur and at Gunung Dadum in Eastern Sabah (Nais, 2001). The northern most limits are at Mount Makiling, Los Banos Province, on Luzon Island in the Philippnes (Madulid Agoo, 1996), and the southern limit is the province of Java, Indonesia. The distribution of Rafflesias genus is shown in Figure 2.1. 2.5 IDENTIFICATION OF RAFFLESIA SPECIES The first description of the morphology of Rafflesia was made by Robert Brown (1821, 1835), who provided a detailed and meticulous description and illustrations of the male and female flowers of Rafflesia arnoldii (Nais, 2001). The taxonomy of Rafflesia is based entirely on the floral morphology (form and structure) of the flower with most emphasis on the outer appearance. The current species delimitation of Rafflesia is based on eight major characters. These eight variable characters are listed below (Nais, 2001) and the radial section of Rafflesia flower drawn by Yong Ket Hyun, after Meijer 1985 are shown in Figure 2.2. Size (diameter of open flowers varies from 15 cm in R. manillana to nearly 1 m in R. arnoldii); Diameter of the diaphragm aperture (ranging form 3-9 cm in R. micropylora, to about 20 cm in R. arnoldii); Number of disk processes (from none in R. rochussenii to 20-60 in R. arnoldii); Size and number of white spots (called blots, specks or warts) on the perigone lobes and diaphragm (from few to large in R. hasseltii to numerous and small in R. arnoldii); Number and size of the windows on the inside or lower surface of the diaphragm (3-5 rings of round spots in R. micropylora, seven rings of round spots in R. kerrii, or five rings of elongate oval spots in R. pricei) Number of anthers (from about 15 in R. manillana to 40 in R. arnoldii); Structure and length of ramenta, and position of their occurrence (from short and more or less postulate in R. manillana to up to 12 mm long in R. micropylora; in R. schadenbergiana, ramenta occur on the undersite of the diaphragm; ramenta in various species may have apices branched or unbranched, swollen or crateriform); and Number of annuli at the base of the perigone tube and column, all species has either 1 or 2 (for example, 2 in R. pricei). In this research, the focus is on the Rafflesia species in Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia only. There are eight species of Rafflesia can be found around Malaysia which is four species (R. azlanii, R. cantleyi, R. hasseltii and R. kerrii) located in Peninsular Malaysia, three species (R. tengku-adlinii, R. keithi and R. pricei) can be found in Sabah and four species (R. tuan-mudae, R. pricei and R. keithii) in Sarawak. 2.5.1 Rafflesia cantleyi Solms-Laubach Rafflesia cantleyi was named after M. Cantley, curator of the Singapore Botanic Gardens in 1880 to 1886, who collected the type specimen in 1881. This species was described by H. Graft Solms-Laubach based on a collection made by M. Cantley in 1881. Rafflesia cantleyi has open flower dimension from 30 to 55 cm in diameter. Its perigone lobes are up to 14 cm long and 18 cm wide. It has 6 to 8 whitish warts in radial and lateral directions, about 10 in the basal row. The diaphragm opening is 4 to 8 cm across and rounded shape or sometimes angular. It has 5 concentric rings of oval white blots. Its ramenta is 2 cm long in upper type while middle and lower type is 10 to 12 mm longs, or sometimes branched, almost all with swollen apices. Its number of anthers is from 20 to 25 and this species can be found in Peninsular Malaysia only (Perak, Kedah, Perlis, Selangor, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang and Tioman Island). Figure 2.3 shows the picture of Rafflesia cantleyi. 2.5.2 Rafflesia hasseltii Suringar Rafflesia hasseltii was described by Suringer in 1879 from discovery in Central Sumatra. R. hasseltii has an open flower dimension from 35 to 50 cm in diameter. It has 10 to 13 cm long and 14 to 17 cm wide of perigone lobes. It has whitish-pinkish blots across and large size of blots ranging from 5 x 3 to 10 x 1 cm. The clear contrast of snow white blots on bright brick-red background easily distinguishes this species from others. Its window is whitish or pale yellowish with a dark brown zone near the rim and the compound ramenta near the attachment point of the diaphragm gradually become white blots (window) on the lower part of the diaphragm. The R. hasseltii ramentas upper type is toadstool-like compound ramenta which gradually becoming the white blots of the windows. While for middle and lower type is generally linear with swollen apices. The number of anthers is 20 and this species can be found in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo and its altitudinal distribution is from 4 00 to 600 m. Figure 2.4 shows the picture of Rafflesia hasseltii. 2.5.3 Rafflesia keithii Meijer Rafflesia keithii was named after Harry G. Keith, the former Conservator of Forests in British North Borneo or nowadays called Sabah, Malaysia. This species was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia keithii has an open flower dimension from 80 to 94 cm in diameter. The perigone lobes are 10 to 12 cm across at the median of the lobes but sometimes it has six-lobed. Its colour is numerous white warts with dense, more or less of the same sizes. The diaphragm opening is normally 5 concentric of white warts in about 40 radial rows, each surrounded by a dark red-brown margin. Its window has 5 to 6 rings of large, white blots, those nearer to the rim merging. The ramenta for upper type is 5 to 6 mm long which often fascicled (in bundles) middle and for lower type is solitary and only some with a swollen head. Rafflesia keithii always has 40 numbers of anthers. This species can be found only in Borneo with 250 to 940 m of altitudinal distribution. Figure 2.5 shows the picture of Raff lesia keithii. 2.5.4 Rafflesia kerrii Meijer Rafflesia kerrii was named after A.F.G. Kerr, Thailands first Government Botanist, who collected the specimen from which the specimen was described. This species was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia kerrii has an open flower dimension of 50 to 70 cm in diameter. It has 13 to 20 cm long and 19 to 24 cm wide of perigone lobes. Its colour is dull red with brownish tinge and have numerous and scattered warts with 3 to 4 mm space between them. The size of warts for R. kerrii is the smallest compared to other species. The diaphragm opening ia about 12 to 17 cm across and have upper face with 3 to 4 concentric rings of white spots surrounded by a dark red margin. The characteristics for its window are bright white in colour with roundish to elliptic blots and up to 10 mm of diameter. This species of Rafflesia has ramenta that mostly unbranched and only slightly swollen at apex. Its anthers consist of about 26 to 31. The distribution of Rafflesia kerrii is surrounding Thailand a nd Peninsular Malaysia which at attitude from 500 to 1000 m. Figure 2.6 shows the picture of Rafflesia kerrii. 2.5.5 Rafflesia pricei Meijer Rafflesia pricei was named after William Price, a honourary plant collector for the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, who collected this species along the trail to the Mamut Copper Mine. This species of Rafflesia was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia pricei can only be found in Sabah only. It has 16 to 45 cm of opening flower dimension. It has 40 to 80 raised whitish spots (warts) surrounded by brick-red background. The spots range from 1 to 4 cm in length and the surface is minutely rugolose giving a matted appearance while the red background is densely papillose (Beaman at al., 1988). The diaphragm opening is about 5 to 6 cm in diameter and the diaphragm has 4 to 5 irregular rings of white spots smaller than those of the perigone lobes, surrounded by brick-red areas that grade into the cream-white background, the inner edge has a narrow white margin with a continuous reddish-brown area just outside the white rim (Beaman et al., 1988). The R. pricei has 4 to 5 concentric rings of large white window panes or blots and contracting with the bright red background. The interior of the perigone tube from the base of the tube to the lower edge of the diaphragm is lines with wine-red ramenta. The upper type (near the diaphragms opening) is about 2 to 6 long while middle type (near the insertion of the perigone lobes) is about 4 to 6 cm long and the lower type (near the base of the perigone tube) is about 6 to 7 mm long. The number of anthers for R. pricei is 20. Figure 2.6 shows the picture of Rafflesia pricei. 2.5.6 Rafflesia tengku-adlinii Mat Salleh Latiff Rafflesia tengku-adlini was named after Tengku Datuk (Dr.) Adlin Tengku Zainal Abidin, a keen naturalist and conservationist in Sabah who facilitated the documentation of the species after its recovery. This species was described by Kamarudin Mat Salleh and A. Latiff Mohamed from a specimen collected at Mount Trus Madi, Sabah in the year of 1989. R. tengku-adlinii is endemic species to Sabah only at altitude 610 to 800 m. Its opening flower dimension is about 20 to 25 cm diameter while its perigone lobes are 7 to 12 cm long and 12 to 16 cm wide. The colour of R. tengku-adlinii is bright to dull orange throughout with warts throughout the upper surface except near the diaphragm opening. The diaphragm opening is up to 12.5 cm wide and about 3 cm in diameter. It has no windows and the lower diaphragm covered with ramenta. The ramenta occurs right up to the opening of the diaphragm with 3 to 5 cm long, apices swollen, upper, middle and lower types all have fine bristles. The number of an thers for this species is 20. Figure 2.8 shows the picture of Rafflesia tengku-adlinii. 2.5.7 Rafflesia tuan-mudae Beccari Rafflesia tuan-mudae was named after Mr. Carlo (Charles) Brooke Tuan Muda of Sarawak. This species wasfirst collected from Mount Pueh, Sarawak, from which specimen the species was described by Beccari in 1868. Rafflesia tuan-mudae also is an endemic species. It only can be found in Sarawak. The opening flower dimension can reach from 44 to 92 cm in diameter. The numbers of perigone lobes is usually 5, sometimes 6 (at Gunung Gading National Park, Sarawak (personal observation), or even 7 (in Cagar Alam Gunung Raya Pasi (Zuhud et al., 1998). The colour of R. tuan-mudae is much like R. keithii, but it only has 5 to 8 warts across the median. The diaphragm opening is from 15 to 18 cm and the number of anthers is unknown. Figure 2.9 shows the picture of Rafflesia tuan-mudae. 2.5.8 Rafflesia azlanii Latiff M. Wong Rafflesia azlanii is endemic species to Peninsular Malaysia only at altitude 150 to 400 m. Its opening flower dimension is about 38 to 50 cm diameter while its perigone lobes are 9.5 to 10.5 cm long and 12 to 14.5 cm wide. The colour and pattern of R. azlanii is large and continuous (not all like R. hasseltii) whitish warts with brick-red background. The diaphragm opening is from 4.7 to 5.5 cm in diameter. During an early stage of blooming, the open diaphragm is about 7 cm and when the flower bloom fully, the open diaphragm become wider up to 18 cm. The flowers window is large whitish scattered of warts. The ramenta for upper type is 6 mm long while for lower type is 4 mm long. The number of anthers for this species is unknown. Figure 2.10 shows the picture of Rafflesia azlanii. 2.6 THREATS AND CONSERVATION Rafflesia is one of the most threatened and also one of the rarest plants in the world. The existence of this prodigious flower is precarious and it will eventually become extinct without active conservation efforts. 2.6.1 Threats Rafflesia are inherently rare as a result of a number of factors of their life cycle; they have a double habitat specialisation, as they can only successfully parasitise particular species and these species in turn are found only in specific habitats (Nais, 2001). In addition to this factor, there is an extremely unbalanced sex ratio in the Rafflesia flowers observed, with many more male than female flowers (Nais, 2001). Flower buds have a high level of mortality and only 10 to 18 percent go on to bloom, these only lasting for a few days; the chances of a male and female flower being in bloom at the same time in a close enough vicinity to be pollinated is therefore extremely slim (Nais, 2001). In addition to these inherent factors, there is widespread habitat destruction within much of the rain forested area of Southeast Asia and Rafflesia buds are also collected for traditional medicine to treat fertility problems, in parts of their range. 2.6.2 Conservation The tropical rain forest is the most threatened environment and has experienced the greatest loss of species during our lifetime (Lucas Synge, 1981). Human disturbance is one of the factors that result great loss of this natural habitats and species. Under the present circumstances, Rafflesia appears to be one of the genera approaching extinction (Nais, 2001). Therefore, the tropical rain forest and all their inhabitants must be the main focus in conservation efforts. 2.6.3 Conservation Status of Rafflesia The World Conservation Union, IUCN (1984, 1988, and 1997) established five main categories to highlight the conservation status of species: Extinct (no longer known to exist in the wild) Endangered (species that have a high likelihood of becoming extinct in the near future) Vulnerable (species that may become endangered in the near future because populations are decreasing in size throughout the range) Rare (species that have small total numbers of individuals, often due to limited geographical ranges or low population densities) Insufficiently known (species that probably belong in one of the preceding categories but are not sufficiently known to be assigned to a specific category). The conservation status of Rafflesia can only be reliably assessed by acquiring and analyzing extensive field data of each species. These data include the distribution and the characteristics of sites, rarity and reproductive ecology. The conservation status of all Rafflesia species based on current knowledge which is from published account recognized by IUCN (1997), present analysis using the WCMC/IUCN classification of Conservation Status and present analysis using the IUCNs new Categories of Conservation Status are shown in Table 2.4. 2.6.4 Approaches to Conserve Rafflesia There are two approaches can be taken according to Nais (2001). One of the approaches and also the best conservation approach for any species is in situ (or on site) conservation which mean leaving it to grow wild in its original habitat. In situ conservation is usually more effective than other approaches because natural condition often impossible to duplicate artificially. In situ conservation strategy of Rafflesia involves: i) Protection inside established Conservation Areas One of the major problem to conserve the Rafflesia is because so many tourist eager to pay homepage to existing Rafflesia sites, cause massive trampling, even to level where some populations are trampled to extinction. The mechanisms to control over-visitation are inadequate, and the infrastructure to minimize its impact is not well developed. One way to avoid trampling is by constructing boardwalks or walkways over Rafflesia population. In addition, Rafflesia sites outside conservation areas need to be made available for tourists, thus reducing the pressure for population within conservation areas (Nais, 2001). ii) Designating New Conservation Areas It may not be possible to make each Rafflesia site become conservation areas. A more plausible strategy is to synergize the Rafflesia cause with other issues, such as the protection of forests for water catchment, total habitat and biodiversity conservation, and also for nature tourism development (Nais, 2001). This may allow larger area to be conserved to protect their habitat and also their population. iii) Protection of Sites in other Areas Many Rafflsia locations are outside the protected areas which within the land belong to the indigenous community. Cooperation from the landlords is very important in order to conserve the Rafflesia. By doing opening sites for tourism is one viable conservation solution and apart from that, it also can generate income for the landowners. The second approach is by doing ex situ conservation. Ex situ conservation (sometimes referred to as off-site conservation) is the conservation of plants away from their natural occurrence [Given (1994) cited in Nais (2001)]. This approach includes conserving whole plants or plants in botanical garden and gene banks, as well as using laboratory techniques such as tissues culture for their propagation and preservation. Bringing Rafflesia into cultivation has always been appealing. Its cultivation would important not only for its conservation, but also as an important step towards utilization of the plants for ecotourism purposes (Nais, 2001). Prior to the success by Nais et al. (in press, 2000), many researchers had unsuccessfully tried various methods and techniques of ex situ propagation of Rafflesia. These attempts have included efforts to grow Rafflesia by way of seed insertion into host plants and the translocating of Tetrastigma plants with Rafflesia buds (Nais, 1997; Nais Wilcock, 1999). Similar cattempts conducted by various other people have also not been successful, for example: seed germination, tissues culture of Rafflesia and grafting of infected host plants into uninfected ones (Ghazally, 1991; Latif Mat-Salleh, 1991; Zuhud et al., 1998). These failures have initially led some researchers to believe that ex situ cultivation possibly may never be a viable option for the conservation of Rafflesia species (Meijer, 1997) until Nais et al. achieve successful in 1999. 2.7 EXPERT SYSTEM AS A SOLUTION Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science that is principally concerned with using computational models to understand how humans think (Tanimoto, 1987). Major research areas include expert systems, search methods, knowledge representation, logical and probabilistic reasoning, learning, natural language understanding, vision, and robotics (Cohen and Feigenbaum, 1982). The most successful application of Artificial Intelligence so far is the development of Decision Support System (DSS), particularly expert system, which is a computer program that act as a consultant or advisor to decision makers (Generation5, 2005). According to Turban Aronson (2001), an expert system is a system that uses human knowledge captured in a computer to solve problems that ordinarily require human expertise, or, a computer program that can solve problems in a specific area of knowledge (the problem domain) as well as a human expert (OKeefe et al., 1987), or, that automates tasks that are normally performed by specially trained or talented people (Shannon et al., 1985). Usually when an organization having problem to solve and have to make critical decision, they often turn to consultants or experts seeking for advice. These experts or consultants have specific knowledge and experience in the problem area. They are aware of alternative solutions, chances of success, and costs that the organization may incur if the problem is not solved. Experts can diagnose problems correctly and solve them satisfactorily within a reasonable time frame.However, human experts are expensive, and they may not be readily available. Expert systems are an attempt to mimic human experts (Turban, Rainer, Potter, 2001). The expert system begins by asking questions about the problem to be solved. When the needed information has been gathered (inputted by user), the system offers suggestions about how the problem can be solved (McEneaney, 1992). According to Wentworth (1993), expert systems differ from conventional programs in the way they store and use information. In a conventional program, the operations never vary as the programmer predetermines them. The conventional program contains precisely defined logical formulas and data, and if any data element is missing, the program will not run. The expert system, like the human expert, contains heuristic information and can function with incomplete information. 2.7.1 Components of Expert System An expert system is typically composed of at least three primary components. These are the inference engine, the knowledge base, and the working memory (Wikibooks, 2010). An expert system, also known as knowledge-based system, uses the knowledge and experience of experts to solve problems in a reasonable period of time. Human experts solve problems by using their factual knowledge and reasoning ability. In the other hand, an expert system uses its knowledge base and inference engine to perform a similar task. Figure 2.1 shows the main components in an expert system. The knowledge base supplies specific facts and rules regarding a domain, while the inference engine offers the reasoning ability that allows the expert system to make conclusions. The user interface is the medium between the expert system and the user. An expert is someone who has the ability to achieve a specific task efficiently by using his or her skills, experience, and knowledge in a specific domain. 2.7.1.1 Knowledge Base Expert systems are based on human knowledge and reasoning patterns (Wikibooks, 2010). The knowledge base an expert uses is what he learned at school, from colleagues, and from years of experience. The more experience he has, the larger his store of knowledge. Knowledge allows him to interpret the information in his databases to advantage in diagnosis, design, and analysis (Edward and Robert, 1993). This knowledge must be extracted from a human expert by a specialized knowledge engineer. Knowledge engineers ask the expert questions about his knowledge and his reasoning processes, and attempts to translate that into